Papsa

Papsa is a constructed language in the logical-language tradition — comparable to Lojban, but with a focus on simplicity and elegance. Papsa is designed with "Utopia" in mind, and is not based on any existing language or culture. It has no inflection, a lightweight grammar, and a 14-letter alphabet. The shape of words and the letters they contain provide a guide to their meaning (e.g. words that start with "k" are associated with the element of fire). For more on the conceptual underpinnings of the language, see the Philosophy appendix.

This page is primarily a description of Papsa in plain English. But it also contains a formal specification (written in JavaScript) that validates all the example text and powers the interactive tool below. Code appears alongside the relevant text, but is collapsed by default. Click the code-block header to expand it.

Click or hover on Papsa words to see their meanings and a guide for pronunciation.

Try It

Type any Papsa sentence to see its structure and a rough English translation. Enter a single Papsa word for its full definition, or a single English word for the closest matches in the Papsa dictionary.

Phonology

The Papsa alphabet, at heart, has 14 letters. Each letter covers a range of sounds, and speakers are free to use whatever pronunciation in that range is clearest and easiest for them. Each of these letters is associated with a conceptual atmosphere that hints at the meanings of words that contain them.

| Letter | Acceptable sounds (IPA)       | Atmosphere              |
|:------:|:-----------------------------:|-------------------------|
|   `N`  | n,ŋ,ɲ,ɳ,ɴ                     | Spirit / Mind           |
|   `M`  | m,ɱ                           | Water / Life            |
|   `K`  | k,g,q,ɢ,ɠ,ʛ                   | Fire / Energy           |
|   `T`  | t,d,ʈ,ɖ,c,ɟ,ɗ,ᶑ,ʄ             | Metal / Structure       |
|   `P`  | p,b,ɓ                         | Wood / Community        |
|   `F`  | f,v,θ,ð,ɸ,β                   | Earth / Substance       |
|   `H`  | h,ɦ,x,ɣ,χ,ʁ,ħ,ʕ,ʜ,ʢ           | Air / Freedom           |
|   `C`  | ʃ,ʒ,ç,ʝ,ʂ,ʐ,ɕ,ʑ,ɬ,ɮ           | Shadow / Negation       |
|   `S`  | s,z                           | Time / Abstraction      |
|   `L`  | l,ɭ,ʎ,ʟ,ɹ,ɻ,ɰ,r,ʀ,ɾ,ɽ         | Distinction             |
|   `U`  | u,o,ʊ,ɯ,ɤ,ø,y,ʉ,ʏ,ɵ           | Entities / Actors       |
|   `A`  | ə,ɐ,ä,ɘ,ɞ,a,ɑ,æ,ɒ,ɶ,ɛ,ɔ,ʌ,œ,ɜ | Relationships / Actions |
|   `I`  | i,e,ɪ,ɨ                       | Objects / Qualities     |
|   `!`  | ǀ,ǃ,ǁ,ǂ,ʘ,ʔ,ʡ                 | Grammatical Boundary    |
  

The first nine letters of the Papsa alphabet are called the "elementals." The first six of those (associated with the numbers 0 through 5) are the "primals," which are in turn split into three "vitals" (Spirit, Water, and Fire), and "materials" (Metal, Wood, and Earth). The last three elementals are "ethereals" (Air, Shadow, and Time). The primals, in particular, are associated with Papsa's base-six number system. For more details, see the number section of the appendix.

Papsa letters can also be annotated to specify an exact pronunciation. (In the Papsa script we do this using diacritics: `g`.) In this way, it can serve as a phonetic alphabet, if needed, such as when writing a name.

To make things easy on English readers, the standard way to romanize Papsa using a small set of lowercase letters where each letter represents a single Papsa letter. For example, we use the letter "c" for the "sh" sound to clarify it's not the "s" letter plus the "h" letter. And because Papsa letters can be pronounced in a variety of ways, letters are chosen to roughly match Anglophone expectations about the most normal pronunciation. For example, we will see both "k" and "g" showing up in various words, despite those technically being the same Papsa letter. See the orthography appendix for more details on the Papsa script.

| Romanization | Papsa Letter | Sounds like the end of... |
|--------------|--------------|---------------------------|
|        n     |     `N`      | on                        |
|        ŋ     |     `N`      | tong                      |
|        m     |     `M`      | am                        |
|        k     |     `K`      | ick                       |
|        g     |     `K`      | wag                       |
|        t     |     `T`      | it                        |
|        d     |     `T`      | add                       |
|        p     |     `P`      | app                       |
|        b     |     `P`      | ab                        |
|        f     |     `F`      | if                        |
|        v     |     `F`      | of                        |
|        θ     |     `F`      | with                      |
|        h     |     `H`      | hah                       |
|        x     |     `H`      | loch                      |
|        c     |     `C`      | ash                       |
|        j     |     `C`      | beige                     |
|        s     |     `S`      | sass                      |
|        z     |     `S`      | is                        |
|        l     |     `L`      | all                       |
|        r     |     `L`      | or                        |
  

const baseLetter = (ch) => {
  if (clickChars.has(ch)) return '!';
  const baseRow = alphabet['Letter'][ch];
  if (baseRow) return baseRow['Letter'];
  const romRow = engConsonantRomanization['Romanization'][ch];
  if (romRow) return romRow['Papsa Letter'];
  const ipaRow = alphabet['Acceptable sounds (IPA)'][ch];
  if (ipaRow) return ipaRow['Letter'];
  throw new Error(`Unknown Papsa character: ${ch}`);
};
const baseLetters = (wrd) => [...wrd].map(baseLetter).join('');
const letterIdx = (ch) => alphabet['Letter'][baseLetter(ch)].index;
const primalNum = (ch) => {
  const idx = letterIdx(ch);
  if (idx < 6) return idx;
  throw new Error(`Not a primal: ${ch}`);
};

const clickChars = new Set(['.', ',', "'"]);
const vowelChars = new Set(['U', 'A', 'I']);
const vowelIdxs      = new Set([...alphabet['Letter']].filter(([ch])  =>  vowelChars.has(ch)             ).map(([,r]) => r.index));
const consonantIdxs  = new Set([...alphabet['Letter']].filter(([ch])  => !vowelChars.has(ch) && ch !== '!').map(([,r]) => r.index));
const isV = (i) => vowelIdxs.has(i);
const isC = (i) => consonantIdxs.has(i);

const wordIdxs = (wrd) => [...wrd].map(letterIdx);
  

The sound at the start of the English word "jump" is written with the two letters "dj" in romanized Papsa. Likewise, the sound at the start of "choose" is written as "tc."

The `U` vowel is typically written with "u" and sounds like the vowels in "moo," "shoe," "two," et cetera. The vowel `I` is typically written with "i" and sounds like the vowels in "me," "she," "tee," et cetera. The vowel `A` is written with "a" and can have a wide range of sounds, such as the vowels in "nut," "mop," "cat," and "caught." It's unusual for the specific "a" sound to be indicated for English speakers, since English words don't really have consistent vowels in the first place. Check the dictionary for specific pronunciations.

Vowels can be combined into diphthongs and longer glides. Instead of writing "ii" we typically write "ei", and instead of writing "uu" we usually write "ou," to make things more natural to English readers. The "a" vowel never combines with itself. Glides are never romanized using the letters "w" or "y" — Papsa always interprets those sounds as vowels.

| Diphthong | Sounds like the vowels in... |
|-----------|------------------------------|
|    ei     | say                          |
|    ia     | yawn                         |
|    iu     | you                          |
|    ai     | eye                          |
|    au     | pow                          |
|    ui     | we                           |
|    ua     | want                         |
|    ou     | owe                          |
  

Papsa is distinct from most natural languages in that it has a click. The letter `!` is usually written as a "." and basically only ever occurs as a stand-alone word that marks the boundary between sentences. Because it is similar to a period, it is often written without any space between it and the preceding word. It is usually pronounced with a dental click — the tooth-sucking noise that is often written as "tsk!" in English. (When written to close a quote it's written as `,` and pronounced as a more emphatic click. In the very rare cases where it shows up mid-word it's pronounced as a glottal stop and written with an apostrophe.)

Morphology

Papsa has four types of words, determined entirely by shape — no declaration needed. Papsa has no inflection: words never change form for tense, number, case, gender, or any other grammatical category.

| Type         | Shape                                                     | Examples                             |
|--------------|-----------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------|
| Grammar word | ≤1 consonant group & 1 vowel group (or just `.`)          | `na`, `ei`, `ul`, `uau`, `intc`, `.` |
| Core word    | starts and ends with a consonant (CVC minimum)   | `nup`, `bik`, `maukuh`               |
| Name         | ≥2 vowel groups, starts or ends with vowel, not a pronoun | `tina`, `djani`, `papsa`             |
| Pronoun      | only 1 consonant group with vowel groups on both sides    | `ina`, `ardja`, `apsa`               |
  

const wordType = (ixs) => {
  const cvPattern = ixs.map(i => isV(i) ? 'V' : 'C').join('').replace(/(.)\1+/g, '$1');
  if (cvPattern === 'C' && ixs.length === 1) return isC(ixs[0]) ? 'pronoun' : 'grammar';
  if (cvPattern === 'C') throw new Error(`Unclassifiable: ${ixs}`);
  if (cvPattern === 'V' || cvPattern === 'VC' || cvPattern === 'CV') return 'grammar';
  if (cvPattern === 'VCV') return 'pronoun';
  return /^C.+C$/.test(cvPattern) ? 'core' : 'name';
};
const vowelGroups = (ixs) => ixs.map(i => isV(i) ? 'V':'C').join('').match(/V+/g)?.length ?? 0;

const grammarWords = {};
const coreWords = {};
const names = {}; // Also technically contains the pronoun version of the letter names.

const tokenParsers = [ // Defined as a list so we can later extend with number tokens.
  // base = baseLetters(s), ixs = wordIdxs(s). We pass all for efficiency.
  (s,base,ixs) => grammarWords[base] && { ...grammarWords[base], rawTok: s, type: 'grammar' },
  (s,base,ixs) => coreWords[base] && { ...coreWords[base], rawTok: s, type: vowelGroups(ixs) > 1 ? 'compound' : 'root' },
  (s,base,ixs) => {
    const structure = wordType(ixs);
    if (structure === 'name' || structure === 'pronoun')
      return { ...(names[base] ?? {}), rawTok: s, type: structure, probablyForeign: ! names[base] };
  },
];
  

Pronouns are based on names: take the first two vowel groups and the consonants that come between if the name starts with a vowel (`ardjantina` → `ardja`), or the last two if it starts with a consonant (`babi` → `abi`). As with pronouns in any language, ambiguity can sometimes occur if two names are very similar, and Papsa speakers will occasionally use unconventional pronouns for clarity.

Each letter has a full name that follows the pattern "a_apaun" for consonants, and "_lupaun" for vowels. Thus the full name of "n" is "`anapaun`", and the full name of "a" is "`alupaun`." But almost everyone refers to letters by the pronoun that drops the "`paun`" suffix. If a consonant (not vowel or click) is written by itself, this is interpreted as the "a_a" pronoun. (This is allowed in writing only. It's still pronounced with vowels.) The click is "`a'apaun`," where the "`'`" is a rare instance of `a'a` being used in a word (besides `.`) and is pronounced as a glottal stop.

for (const [ltr,row] of alphabet["Letter"]) {
  const entry = row;  // TODO: probably should augment with more info, such as canonical pronunciation and other notes. See later entry construction in lexicon.
  if (isV(row.index)) {
    names[ltr+'LU'] = entry;
    names[ltr+'LUPAUN'] = entry;
  } else {
    names['A'+ltr+'A'] = entry;
    names['A'+ltr+'APAUN'] = entry;
  }
}
  

Core words are either single-syllable "root words," or longer "compounds" formed by joining root words. Compounds are usually related to the root words that make them up, with the leftmost/earliest base anchoring the grammar and core meaning, and the later root words being like modifiers. When someone comes up with a new word via compounding, it's important to adhere to a few rules and conventions for which letters are retained and so on, to match Papsa's general phonotactics. See the appendix for the full rules.

While not technically a form of inflection, Papsa speakers have a convention of giving names to inanimate objects and entities in the course of talking about them, usually by adding a leading vowel to the start of a core word. This is a bit like tagging the noun as "definite" by using "the" in English. For instance, when a conversation starts, a person might refer to a fire as `guk`, but then later use the name `aguk` to refer to that particular fire. (And if the thing has a very long word, they might just use the pronoun version of its name.)

Lexicon

Grammar words

Papsa has a fixed set of short words that are used for grammatical purposes. Many of these follow regular patterns based on their vowels and/or primals. For example:

| Word(s)                                        | Usage                                          |
|:----------------------------------------------:|------------------------------------------------|
| `ei`                                           | Augment as an afterthought                     |
| `un`, `um`, `uk`, `ut`, `up`, `uf`             | Subject with {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} augments       |
| `an`, `am`, `ak`, `at`, `ap`, `af`             | Verb with {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} augments          |
| `in`, `im`, `ik`, `it`, `ip`, `if`             | Object with {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} augments        |
| `ui`                                           | Possession/association as an afterthought      |
| `nau`, `mau`, `kau`, `tau`, `pau`, `fau`       | Subject with {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} associations   |
| `na`, `ma`, `ka`, `ta`, `pa`, `fa`             | Verb with {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} associations      |
| `nai`, `mai`, `kai`, `tai`, `pai`, `fai`       | Object with {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} associations    |
| `ou`                                           | Grouping/addition as an afterthought           |
| `snau`, `smau`, `skau`, `stau`, `spau`, `sfau` | Subject with {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} additions      |
| `sna`, `sma`, `ska`, `sta`, `spa`, `sfa`       | Verb with {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} additions         |
| `snai`, `smai`, `skai`, `stai`, `spai`, `sfai` | Object with {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} additions       |
  

Some grammar words are extremely common, like `.`, while others, like `antc`, almost never show up in practice, and are more for completeness. See Syntax for usage.

| Word(s)                                        | Usage                                          |
|:----------------------------------------------:|------------------------------------------------|
| `.`                                            | Sentence divider                               |
| `uas`, `iur`                                   | {"And", "But"}                                 |
| `tu`                                           | Addressing a specific listener                 |
| `ouei`, `ceiou`                                | Command mark, Prohibition (anti-command) mark  |
| `sou`                                          | Yes/no question mark                           |
| `eis`                                          | Complex question mark                          |
| `ous`                                          | "what/where/why/..."                           |
| `lu`, `la`, `li`                               | Start {subject, verb, object} clause           |
| `ul`, `al`, `il`                               | End {subject, verb, object} clause             |
| `θu`, `tci`                                    | Preposition mark (clause is {subject, object}) |
| `untc`, `antc`, `intc`                         | End preposition ({subject, verb, object} next) |
| `uip`, `uin`                                   | {"Mine", "Yours"}                              |
| `uau`                                          | Foreign word mark                              |
| `uai`                                          | Foreign speech mark                            |
| `iau`                                          | Open quote mark (closed with `,`)              |
  

for (const [word,row] of phraseWordMeanings["Word(s)"]) {
  const meaning = row['Usage'];
  const phraseMode = ['aug','assoc','add'].find(m => meaning.toLowerCase().includes(m));
  const numLetter = [...word].find(c => "nmktpf".includes(c));
  const slot = numLetter ? meaning[0] : undefined;
  const phraseSize = numLetter ? primalNum(numLetter)+1 : null;
  grammarWords[baseLetters(word)] = {word, meaning, phraseMode, slot, phraseSize };
}
const VOWEL_SLOT = { u: 'S', a: 'V', i: 'O' };
for (const [word,row] of miscGrammarWordMeanings["Word(s)"]) {
  const r = {word, meaning: row['Usage']};
  if (/^l[uai]$/.test(word))      { r.clause = 'open';  r.slot = VOWEL_SLOT[word[1]]; }
  else if (/^[uai]l$/.test(word)) { r.clause = 'close'; r.slot = VOWEL_SLOT[word[0]]; }
  grammarWords[baseLetters(word)] = r;
}
  

Core words

The meanings of Papsa's core words change depending on how they are used. For instance, the word `bik` can mean "food" when used as a noun, but means "to eat" when used as a verb, and "edible" when used as an adjective. This is similar to how "feed" in English is a verb, but can also be a noun. Whether this means Papsa has many words with the same spelling, or the same underlying word changes to fit the slot is up to interpretation, but the standard story is that all Papsa words with the same spelling are the same word. Papsa has no homonyms (or homophones) with unrelated meanings.

As a rule of thumb, the meanings of a word tend to follow a pattern based on its first vowel group. If the first vowel group is "u", "ui", "ua", "au", or "ou", the noun form of the word is usually the agent/subject that does the action of the corresponding verb. If the first vowel group is simply "a", the noun form is usually the action itself. And if the vowel group is "i", "ei", "ia", "ai", or "iu", the noun is usually either the essential quality of the relationship, or the thing that is being acted upon. For example, because the vowel in `bik` is "i", and the verb is "to eat", the noun is "that which gets eaten" — food! Adjectives usually reflect the essential character of the noun, while adverbs are often harder to predict. Consult the dictionary when in doubt — all this is just a heuristic.

Another heuristic is that the first letter in a core word indicates the primary elemental atmosphere, and the following consonants indicate secondary associations, with the letter "l" being used to indicate something weird or unexpected. (No core words start with "l".)

It's typical for words to not match up perfectly with English. Multiple translations are provided to help triangulate meaning. Short words tend to be more general/vague, while longer words provide specificity.

`N` — Spirit (Mind, Truth, Personhood, Perception, Emotion, Judgment, Definition)

| Word | Verb | Noun | Adjective | Adverb | Notes |
|------|------|------|-----------|--------|-------|
| `nuŋ` | to think, to reason, to consider, to imagine | mind, thinker, intellect, intelligence, cognition | intellectual, conscious, aware, perceptive, reasonable, thoughtful, insightful | mentally, intellectually, psychologically | |
| `nup` | to act, to optimize, to control | person, people, agent, human, society, man, woman, child, boy, girl, character, personality, moral patient, moral agent | personal, personalized, societal | personally, socially | |
| `nuh` | to listen, to hear, to attend, to recognize, to perceive, to read | audience, reader, receiver, listener, auditor, you, y'all | attentive, receptive, perceptive | attentively, receptively | |
| `naun` | to be good for, to have value to, to attract, to benefit | treasure, wealth, resource, virtue, benefit, boon | good, moral, right, valuable, healthy, excellent, lovely, wonderful, great, glorious | well, excellently | |
| `nuif` | to edge, to border, to limit, to define, to demarcate | edge, border, maximum, minimum, boundary, limit, fringe, margin | extreme, maximal, minimal, edgy, borderline, marginal, limiting, defining | extremely, marginally | |
| `niŋ` | to understand, to be aware of, to comprehend, to know | thought, idea, concept, knowledge, understanding, awareness, insight, model, fact | knowledgeable, aware, insightful, cognizant, conscious, informed, learned, educated | knowledgeably, insightfully | |
| `neim` | to feel, to sense, to experience, to touch, to perceive | sensation, emotion, feeling, experience, perception, texture | sensitive, emotional, sensory, intuitive, tactile | sensitively, emotionally, intuitively | There is a deliberate map-territory vagueness around `neim` and its derivatives (e.g. `neimnaun`). While the vowel pattern indicates that the noun form is that-which-is-felt, we often translate it as the feeling itself or even the one who is experiencing the feeling. Philosophically, this stems from a stance that the true object of `neim` is in the mind. Getting slapped with a cactus is not *objectively* painful (congenital analgesia is a thing, for example), and so we can attach the notion of painfulness to a wound, the experience of a wound, or one who is wounded. |
| `nik` | to work towards, to steer towards, to aim at, to pursue, to seek, to optimize for | goal, target, ends, mission, objective, destination | targeted, optimum, desired, purposeful | purposefully, deliberately | |
| `nis` | to confirm, to prove | truth, yes | true, accurate | truly, accurately | Also used as an affirmative response to yes/no questions |
| `nais` | to measure, to weigh, to count, to assess, to evaluate, to judge, to analyze | measurement, measure, count, quantity, assessment, evaluation, judgment, analysis | measured, measurable, assessable, quantifiable, quantified, precise, rational | analytically, judgmentally, rationally, precisely, numerically | |
  

`M` — Water (Flow, Life, Instinct, Desire, Cycles, Curves, Origins)

| Word | Verb | Noun | Adjective | Adverb | Notes |
|------|------|------|-----------|--------|-------|
| `mum` | to moisten, to hydrate, to lubricate, to flow | water, liquid, fluid, moisture, drink, lubricant | wet, watery, aquatic, damp, moist, soggy | fluidly, smoothly, continuously | |
| `muk` | to live, to grow, to thrive | life, organism | healthy, living, alive, organic, natural | vitally, organically | |
| `muf` | to receive, to obtain, to purchase, to acquire, to collect, to gain, to get, to retrieve, to earn, to take, to accept | receiver, recipient, acquirer, owner | grasping, purchasing, acquisitive | acquisitively | |
| `muc` | to clean, to purify, to cleanse, to clear, to erase, to wash | cleaning, purification, filter, soap, cleanser, disinfectant | clean, pure, purified, sterile | cleanly, purely | |
| `mauk` | to act instinctively, to adapt | creature, animal, beast, fauna | animate, instinctive, wild, zoological, animalistic, instinctual | instinctively, wildly | |
| `mam` | to transform, to alter, to adapt, to shift, to evolve | change, transformation, alteration, adaptation, shift, evolution | changing, transformative, adaptable, adaptive, adapted, shifting, evolving, alterable, mutable, flexible | dynamically, adaptively | |
| `maz` | to encircle, to surround, to curve, to return, to reverse, to cycle, to repeat, to swerve, to bend, to curl | curve, bend, circle, sphere, ball, loop, orb, lump, bulge, rhythm, cycle | round, circular, curved, bent, looping, repetitive, cyclic | again, cyclically, repeatedly | |
| `min` | to desire, to wish for, to crave, to yearn, to seek, to hunt, to hope for, to miss, to lack, to need, to require | desire, wish, want, need, craving, yearning, hope | seeking, hoping, wanting, desirous, wishful, hopeful, needy, incomplete, unfulfilled, eager, ambitious, lost | longingly, eagerly, ambitiously | |
| `main` | to start, to initiate, to begin, to be born, to appear, to emerge, to renew | start, seed, generator, origin, source, beginning, child, youngster, newcomer, rookie | new, young, recent, rejuvenated, revitalized, refreshed, renewed, inexperienced, green, unseasoned, budding, nascent, early | initially, originally | TODO: Distinguish from `tum` |
  

`K` — Fire (Heat, Light, Electricity, Energy, Motion, Power, Enhancement)

| Word | Verb | Noun | Adjective | Adverb | Notes |
|------|------|------|-----------|--------|-------|
| `guk` | to burn, to heat, to ignite, to smolder | fire, flame, blaze, inferno, torch, candle, plasma, star, sun, reactor, forge, heat | scorching, fiery, warm, hot, intense, strong | intensely, heatedly | |
| `kuh` | to travel, to go, to move, to journey to, to proceed, to advance, to progress towards, to migrate | traveler | moving, travelling, speedy, fast | swiftly, quickly | |
| `kud` | to cause, to compel, to force, to push | force, cause, generator, source, reason | compelling, forceful, pushy | forcefully, compellingly | |
| `gab` | to grapple with, to entangle with, to stick to, to bind, to ensnare, to trap, to capture | glue, web, net, binding force, trap | trapping, ensnaring, binding, tangled, caught, bound | tenaciously | |
| `gaug` | to electrify, to charge, to spark, to activate, to power on, to shock, to energize | electricity, zap, shock, current, charge, discharge, lightning | electrifying, shocking, zapping, energetic, sparking, activating, active, powered, charged, electric | electrically, energetically | |
| `guih` | to shine, to illuminate, to reveal, to catch attention, to distract, to glow | light, glow, star | shiny, glowing, bright | brightly, luminously | |
| `kan` | to enhance, to grow, to accelerate, to intensify, to increase, to learn, to improve, to raise, to uplift, to amplify, to strengthen | enhancement, improvement, amplification, healer, teacher, assistant, technology, booster | powerful, empowering, supportive, enhancing, uplifting, elevating, accelerating, strengthening, reinforcing, promoting, healing | powerfully, increasingly | |
| `kat` | to await, to charge, to tense, to tighten, to stress, to strain | tension, stress, strain, readiness, spring, battery | tense, tight, strained, coiled, primed, prepared, waiting | tensely, readily | |
| `kim` | to act, to move, to sway, to adjust, to wiggle | action, movement, restructuring, transition, move | active, transient, dynamic | actively, dynamically | |
  

`T` — Metal (Stone, Armor, Mass, Structure, Stability, Endurance, Tools, Construction, Simplicity)

| Word | Verb | Noun | Adjective | Adverb | Notes |
|------|------|------|-----------|--------|-------|
| `dut` | to stop, to resist, to impede, to halt, to block, to prevent, to inhibit, to cease | stone, metal, rock, boulder, monolith, barrier, difficulty, wall, fence, obstacle | hard, difficult, obstinate, tough | firmly | |
| `tum` | to make, to create, to build, to craft, to produce | maker, builder, craftsman, creator, producer | creative, constructive, productive | creatively, constructively, productively | |
| `dup` | to guard, to protect, to defend, to watch over, to nurture, to parent | guard, protector, defender, armor, shield, shell | guarding, protective, vigilant, secure, defensive, guarded, tough | protectively, vigilantly, securely | |
| `taut` | to anchor, to stabilize, to root, to support, to establish, to ground, to plant | base, root, foundation, anchor, foot, chair, table, desk, door, gate, window, fixture | rooted, foundational, anchored, original, fundamental, stable, unmoving, supportive, solid | fundamentally, solidly, stably | |
| `tat` | to grow into, to take up space, to fill out, to weigh down | giant, colossus, mass, weight | large, massive, big, heavy, tall, long, wide, huge, giant | massively, heavily | |
| `taz` | to flatten, to level, to plane, to spread out, to lay out, to lay down, to spread evenly, to balance, to divide evenly | plane, surface, layer, expanse, area, level, plain, field, cloth, sheet, covering, coating | flat, even, uniform, smooth, horizontal, wide, broad, expansive, planar, prone, flattened, leveled, plain, featureless, direct, simple, uncomplicated, balanced, fair, equal | flatly, evenly, uniformly, simply, directly | This is the most common way to refer to people who are lying down, such as sleeping or resting, and can even include people who are sitting in a relaxed way. |
| `tiŋ` | to center, to focus, to consolidate, to condense | core, center, heart, essence, nucleus, kernel | core, central, essential, focused, condensed | centrally, essentially | |
| `tik` | to use, to wear, to wield, to deploy | tool, device, machine, clothing, construct, artifact | useful, artificial, mechanical | usefully, mechanically | |
| `tif` | to inhabit, to reside, to live in, to be inside, to occupy | building, structure, shelter, home, nest, lair, lodge, hive, house, housing, refuge, sanctuary, mansion, skyscraper, office, apartment, church, residence, dwelling | built, structural, sheltering, enclosing, constructed, architectural | structurally, architecturally | |
  

`P` — Wood (Plants, Food, Connection, Community, Family, Friendship, Communication, Trade, Civilization)

| Word | Verb | Noun | Adjective | Adverb | Notes |
|------|------|------|-----------|--------|-------|
| `bup` | to grow, to produce, to sprout | plant, vegetation, flora, fungus, weed, herb, vegetable | vegetative, green, botanical, leafy, floral, growing, blooming, vegetarian | naturally, adaptively, increasingly | |
| `pun` | to express, to say, to communicate, to write, to tell, to show, to share | speaker, author, communicator, writer, artist, performer, self, me, I, us, we | expressive, communicative, articulate | expressively, communicatively | |
| `poup` | to help, to aid, to assist, to save | help, helper, aid, assistance, rescuer, hero, expert, friend | helpful, useful, necessary, needed, skilled | helpfully, skillfully | |
| `paun` | to signify, to indicate, to symbolize, to represent, to point, to flag | symbol, signal, sign, indicator, pointer, warning, flag, marker, message, expression, gesture, token, emblem, text, word, book, speech, story, song, performance | symbolic, indicative, representative, expressive, emblematic | symbolically, expressively | |
| `pap` | to love, to care for, to coexist peacefully | group, family, town, community, clan, tribe | communal, collective, tribal, familial, loving | communally, lovingly | |
| `baz` | to link, to connect, to bind, to relate, to join | link, connection, bond, chain, relationship | linked, connected, bonded, relational, joint | connectedly, jointly | |
| `paps` | to coordinate with, to cooperate with, to harmonize with, to sync, to organize, to collaborate, to align | coordination, cooperation, civilization, harmony, synergy, teamwork, collaboration, organization | coordinated, cooperative, harmonious, synchronized, organized, collaborative, aligned, unified, concerted, utopian | cooperatively, harmoniously, collaboratively | |
| `bik` | to eat, to feed, to nourish, to consume, to refill | fuel, food, nourishment, sustenance, meal | edible, nutritious, tasty, energizing | nourishingly | |
| `pim` | to be taken care of by, to be raised by, to be looked after, to be loved, to be cared for | parent, caretaker, steward, mentor, healer, nurse, gardener | nurturing, caring, loving, watchful, supportive, gentle | gently, caringly, supportively | |
| `pip` | to trade, to exchange, to barter, to transact, to deal | trade, exchange, barter, goods, product, service | trading, exchanging, bartering, transactional, commercial, mercantile, reciprocal, interactive, traded | commercially, reciprocally | |
| `pif` | to offer, to give, to share, to send, to provide, to bestow, to grant, to hand over, to distribute, to set down, to place, to drop | gift, donation, present | generous, charitable | generously, charitably | |
| `bih` | to branch, to extend, to spread, to diverge, to specialize | branch, wing, side, limb, organ, offshoot, department | branching, extended, spreading, divergent, specialized | divergently | |
  

`F` — Earth (Places, Substances, Things, Texture, Color, Flavor, Shape, Composition)

| Word | Verb | Noun | Adjective | Adverb | Notes |
|------|------|------|-----------|--------|-------|
| `vuf` | to be the place of, to be near, to be around, to contain, to support | place, land, earth, ground, territory, terrain, location, area | embedded, planted, grounded, located | regionally | |
| `fun` | to be the origin of, to be the source of, to give rise to, to produce, to generate, to spawn, to be the birthplace of, to be the home of | origin, source, birthplace, homeland, native land, roots, inception, genesis, provenance, wellspring | original, native, indigenous, ancestral, primordial, fundamental, seminal | originally, fundamentally | TODO: Compare to `main` |
| `fut` | to have, to own, to possess, to hold, to contain, to carry, to lift, to bear, to support | container, vessel, pot, basket, barrel, bag, trunk, closet, cabinet, pantry, cargo hold | possessive, clingy, sticky, closed, sealed, holding | possessively, tightly | |
| `faf` | to be, to equal, to relate to | thing, something, stuff, substance | generic, typical, average, common, frequent, usual, nondescript, mundane | often, typically, generally | |
| `vin` | to arrive | here, now, this | present, nearby, local | here, now, locally, presently | |
| `feim` | to combine, to mix, to interweave, to integrate | mix, mixture, combination, blend | mixed, blended, homogeneous, integrated | mixedly, integrally | |
| `fik` | to be colored, to wear a color, to be painted, to glow, to change color | color, hue, tint, shade | colorful, vibrant, vivid | vividly, vibrantly | |
| `fif` | to arrange, to organize, to structure, to pose | pattern, design, shape, arrangement, sequence, order | patterned, structured, orderly, regular, shaped, arranged, posed | structurally, regularly | |
| `fic` | to split, to disassemble, to deconstruct, to take apart, to break, to shatter | part, piece, chunk, component, element, subset | split, broken, distinguished | deconstructively | |
  

`H` — Air (Sky, Space, Freedom, Openness, Direction, Sound, Lines, Points, Softness)

| Word | Verb | Noun | Adjective | Adverb | Notes |
|------|------|------|-----------|--------|-------|
| `xuh` | to fly, to soar, to rise, to float, to be above | sky, air, atmosphere, breeze, wind, heights, void, gap, space, heaven | high, aerial, lofty, skyward, airborne, up, above, over, atop | aerially | |
| `hun` | to open, to uncover, to reveal, to expose, to spread, to unseal, to unblock, to unlock, to free, to unfasten | key, opener | open, uncovered, revealed, exposed, accessible, free, approachable, available, receptive, welcoming | openly, accessibly, receptively | |
| `huf` | to envelop, to hug, to smother, to snuggle, to cuddle, to wrap, to pad | fluff, cloud, wool, mist, haze, foam | cloudy, fluffy, misty, hazy, obscure, enveloping, snuggly, soft, cozy | softly, cozily | |
| `hat` | to reduce, to shrink, to minimize, to lessen, to diminish | shrimp | small, tiny, minor, slight, petite, reduced, shrunk, minimized, lessened, diminished | slightly, minimally | TODO: Change to better reflect verb pattern? I.e. "shrimp" isn't the shrinking. But note `tat`! |
| `has` | to extend, to elongate, to reach out, to span, to draw out, to stretch | elongation, extension, length, line, stick, shaft, tube, pipe, rod, staff, tendril, ribbon, stripe | elongated, extended, lengthy, linear, reaching, spanning, stretched, narrow, slim, slender, threadlike, continuous, connected | lengthily, continuously | |
| `xarc` | to disappear into, to evaporate, to fade into, to dissipate into, to vanish, to disperse, to thin out, to become transparent, to lose form, to diminish gradually, to sublimate, to atomize, to boil | smoke, vapor, steam, gas, smog | fading, vanishing, ephemeral, transient, fleeting, temporary, ghostly, faint, transparent, dispersed, scattered, diluted | faintly, gradually, fleetingly | |
| `hik` | to sound, to make noise, to resonate, to echo | sound, noise, tone, vibration | audible, sonic, resonant, loud | audibly, loudly, resonantly | |
| `hif` | to orient, to navigate | direction, way, path, route, method, manner | directional, aligned, oriented | directionally | |
| `xih` | to be able, to have opportunity | option, opportunity, possibility, path, choice | free, liberated, unbound, unchained, empowered, unrestricted, available, unimpeded, autonomous, self-determined, independent, flexible, loose, uncontrolled, unrestrained | freely | |
  

`C` — Shadow (Negation, Conflict, Evil, Darkness, Death, Disease, Collapse, Cold, Ice, Mystery, Strangeness)

| Word | Verb | Noun | Adjective | Adverb | Notes |
|------|------|------|-----------|--------|-------|
| `juc` | to negate, to deny, to refute, to oppose, to contradict | opposite, negation, negative, reversal | negative, inverted | negatively | |
| `cun` | to worsen, to harm, to damage, to hurt, to spoil, to ruin | demon, evil, villain | harmful, detrimental, hurtful, negative, damaging, bad, malevolent, dangerous, destructive, undesired, unwanted | harmfully, destructively | |
| `cuk` | to cool, to chill, to freeze, to numb, to deaden, to slow | coldness, chill, coolness, frost, yin, ice | cold, chilly, frigid, icy, frosty, cool, sluggish, slow, muted, quiet, unresponsive, passive, calm, patient | slowly, calmly, patiently | |
| `cus` | to differ, to stand out, to deviate | oddity, anomaly, stranger | odd, strange, unusual, irregular, peculiar, eccentric, abnormal | oddly, peculiarly, unusually | |
| `coum` | to infect, to contaminate, to steal, to mooch | germ, bug, disease, pathogen, microbe, bacteria, virus, parasite | gross, harmful, diseased, unclean, toxic, yucky | toxically, parasitically | |
| `cap` | to fight, to combat, to resist, to oppose | fight, battle, conflict, struggle, war | violent, aggressive, combative, confrontational | violently, aggressively, confrontationally | |
| `caik` | to fuck, to sexually use, to violently take, to despoil, to ravage, to violate, to pillage, to desecrate | sexual abuse, rape, profanity | abusive, violating, desecrating | violently, unilaterally, abusively | All with sexual connotations |
| `cin` | to cover, to obscure, to hide, to conceal, to cloud | mystery, uncertainty, possibility, enigma, unknown | mysterious, uncertain, possible, enigmatic, obscured, hidden, veiled | mysteriously, enigmatically | |
| `ciz` | to deny, to disprove | falsehood, no | false, inaccurate | falsely, inaccurately | Also used as a negative response to yes/no questions |
| `ceim` | to kill, to slay, to break, to end, to murder, to delete | victim, corpse, death, mortality | dead, deceased, lifeless, inert, broken, still, gone, departed, terminal | mortally | |
  

`S` — Time (Abstraction, Quantity, Infinity)

| Word | Verb | Noun | Adjective | Adverb | Notes |
|------|------|------|-----------|--------|-------|
| `zus` | to be the time of, to be the duration of | time, period, duration, era, event, moment, instant | temporal, chronological | temporally, lengthily | |
| `suat` | to multiply, to abound, to throng | multitude, plethora, abundance, crowd, swarm | many, plentiful, numerous, multiple, abundant, manifold | abundantly | |
| `suaf` | to perpetuate, to extend, to continue | infinity, eternity | infinite, boundless, unending, limitless, eternal, continual | eternally, infinitely, endlessly | TODO: Figure out infinity language with the number system |
| `sual` | to demark the limit of | limit, edge, bound, boundary | finite, bounded, limited | finitely | |
| `suin` | to exist, to occur, to be possible, to happen at any time | anything, instance, possibility, existence | existing, possible, real, any | ever, anytime, anywhere | |
| `zuip` | to encompass, to include, to rule, to enforce, to imply | everything, universe, all, rule, law, total, totality | universal, omnipresent, whole, complete, total | universally, completely, totally | |
| `zous` | to precede, to have been, to come before, to be lesser in some ordering | past, ancestor, elder, predecessor | former, prior, historical, outdated, elderly, old, ancient, expired, bygone, preceding, early | before, earlier, previously, ago | |
| `zouc` | to come after, to be greater in some ordering | future, descendendent, sucessor | latter, post, late, new | after | While it's useful to have a parallel word to `zous` for various reasons (mostly mathematical), there's a broad preference for `zeif` to talk about the future, such as when augmenting verbs to convey tense. |
| `sis` | to add, to append, to supplement, to increase, to extend | addition, extra, supplement, bonus, encore, addendum, appendix | additional, extra, supplementary, additive, added, further, more | also, too, as well, in addition, moreover, besides, furthermore | |
| `sip` | to gather, to assemble, to cluster, to aggregate, to congregate, to associate, to combine | assembly, collection, cluster, aggregation, gathering, combination, set | collective, communal, assembled, aggregated, bunched, plural | together, collectively | |
| `sih` | to enumerate, to list, to itemize, to order, to rank, to organize | list, enumeration, series, sequence, array, ranking, ordering, count, line | ranked, listing, enumerating, cataloging, sequential, ordered, orderly, countable | sequentially, methodically | |
| `zeif` | to foretell, to foresee, to predict, to anticipate, to expect | fate, destiny, vision, prediction, outcome, prophecy | predicted, anticipated, inevitable, certain, assured, destined, fated, preordained, predestined, future, determined, confident | inevitably, certainly, confidently | |
  

We have so far been looking only at the single-syllable "root words" that are the heart and soul of Papsa. But there is, of course, a huge range of "compound words" that are made by combining the root words in various ways. For the sake of keeping this document readable, compound words have been relegated to the appendix.

const coreWordEntry = (wrd, row) => ({
  word: wrd,
  verbMeaning:      row['Verb'],
  nounMeaning:      row['Noun'],
  adjectiveMeaning: row['Adjective'],
  adverbMeaning:    row['Adverb'],
  notes:            row['Notes'],
});

const rootWordTables = [
  baseAnaMeanings, baseAmaMeanings, baseAkaMeanings, baseAtaMeanings,
  baseApaMeanings, baseAfaMeanings, baseAhaMeanings, baseAcaMeanings, baseAsaMeanings,
];
for (const table of rootWordTables) {
  for (const [wrd, row] of table["Word"]) {
    coreWords[baseLetters(wrd)] = coreWordEntry(wrd, row);
  }
}

// Single unified lookup across both dictionaries.
const lookupWord = (wrd) => {
  const key = baseLetters(wrd);
  return grammarWords[key] ?? coreWords[key];
};
  

Syntax

The core unit of a Papsa expression is the clause. Each clause has three slots — subject, verb, object — which, in the absence of grammar words, are filled by content in that order. All slots are optional, and can take multiple pieces of content. If more content is provided after the object, it defaults to being another object.

nup            |    There was a person.
nup tum guk    |    People make fire.
tum guk nup    |    The maker burns people.
bik guk        |    The food burned.
abi bik bik    |    Abi will eat the food.
  

const mainContentParsers = [(ctx, inp, out) => {
  if (inp[0] && inp[0]?.type !== 'grammar')
    return out.push({ ...inp.shift(), slot: ctx.defaultSlot }); // Always truthy.
}];
const miscClauseParsers = []; // Parts of clauses that aren't content also exist. See following sections.

const parseContent = (ctx, defaultSlot, inp, out) =>
  ctx.contentParsers.some(p => p({...ctx, defaultSlot}, inp, out));

const getNextSlot = o => o ? o.nextSlot ?? (o.slot === 'S' ? 'V' : 'O') : 'S';

const parseClause = (ctx, inp, out=[]) => {
  while (parseContent(ctx, getNextSlot(out.at(-1)), inp, out)
    || miscClauseParsers.some(p => p(ctx, inp, out))) {}
  return out;
};
  

Phrases

A phrase is a piece of content made of multiple words. The most common kind of phrase is an augmentation, which takes a base and an augment (both of which are content). When used in a noun slot we usually think of the augment as an adjective, and for verbs we think of the augment as an adverb. The simplest way to augment is using the word `ei` as an afterthought, with the base on the left and the augment on the right.

bik ei suk guk   |  Two foods burn.
bik guk ei suk   |  Food burns twice.
  

Augmentation can also be done with a forethought grammar word, used before the content. These grammar words explicitly encode what slot the resulting phrase goes in, and how many augments are attached to the base. As with `ei`, the base comes first, and the augments after. For instance, the word `am` marks a verb with one adverb, while `uk` indicates a subject with two adjectives. Because these words indicate slots, they can be used to rearrange clauses and break the standard word order. When the word order is changed, content that follows will default to the next slot in the order.

bik am guk suk             |  Food burns twice.
uk bik bup sat guk         |  Three vegetarian foods burn.
am guk suk uk bik bup sat  |  Three vegetarian foods burn twice.
  

The second most common kind of phrase is an association, or alternatively called "possession." Association has the same general grammatical form as augmentation, but uses the afterthought word `ui`, and a different set of forethought words. It is typical to use the "n" forethought associators ("no associated content") to explicitly mark slots (especially "na" for the verb) when rearranging the sentence or simply to add clarity. There are two special words `uip` and `uin` which are shorthand for `ui pun` and `ui nuh` — "my" and "your", respectively.

guk ui nup            |  The person's fire
guk ui nup bik bup    |  The person's fire eats the plant.
nau bik               |  There's food.
guk uin guih          |  Your fire glows.
kau bik guk pun guih  |  The food of the fire, which is also mine, is glowing.
  

There is one last way to make a phrase: grouping. It has a similar pattern as the other two, using its own set of words. See the Lexicon for the specific list.

guk ou nup bik bup    |  The fire and the person ate the plant.
  

// Forethought
mainContentParsers.push((ctx, inp, out) => {
  if (inp[0]?.type === 'grammar' && inp[0]?.phraseSize) {
    const w = inp.shift();
    const phraseContent = [];
    while (phraseContent.length < w.phraseSize) {
      if ( ! parseContent(ctx,w.slot,inp,phraseContent)) // Fail if we get less than expected.
        fail(`${w.word} requires ${w.phraseSize} content items; `+`found ${phraseContent.length}.`);
    }
    return out.push({ ...w, phraseContent });
  }
});

// Afterthought
mainContentParsers.push((ctx, inp, out) => {
  if (inp[0]?.type === 'grammar' && inp[0]?.phraseMode && ! inp[0]?.phraseSize) {
    const w = inp.shift();
    const phraseContent = [out.pop() ?? fail("Afterthought phrases need preceding content")];
    const slot = phraseContent[0].slot;
    parseContent(ctx, slot, inp, phraseContent) || fail("Afterthought phrases need following content");
    return out.push({ ...w, slot, phraseContent });
  }
});

// Mine/Yours Phrase
mainContentParsers.push((_ctx, inp, out) => {
  if (inp[0]?.word === 'uip' || inp[0]?.word === 'uin') {
    const base = out.pop() ?? fail(inp[0].word+" needs preceding content");
    return out.push({ ...inp.shift(), slot: base.slot, phraseContent: [base] }); // TODO Annotate more?
  }
});

Clauses as content

A clause can also be used as content that fills a slot in an outer clause. This is done by wrapping the clause in marks that indicate what slot it is being used in based on their vowel. ("u" = Subject, "a" = Verb, "i" = Object.) Clause markers (either opening or closing) can be elided if there's no ambiguity. Here, the word `ul` is used to indicate that the text to the left is in a subordinate clause that's used as a subject.

pun naun                |  The speaker is good.
pun ul naun             |  Speaking is good.
nup pun ul naun         |  People speaking is good.
nup pun ul vin ul naun  |  The fact that people speak here is good.
  

Here's a more complex example:

babi pun li lu bik ul min  |  Bobby said that eating was desired.
  

Breaking it down:

• `babi pun` — Bobby said (subject + verb)
• `li` — opens object-slot clause
• `lu bik ul` — subject-slot clause within: "eating" / "the existence of food"
• `min` — verb of the object clause: desired
• object clause closes implicitly at sentence end (`li` with elided `il`)

// Forethought Clause
mainContentParsers.push((ctx, inp, out) => {
  if (inp[0]?.clause === 'open') {
    const slot = inp.shift().slot;
    const clauseContent = parseClause({...ctx, ignoreAftClause: slot}, inp);
    // We parse ignoring the matching closer, so now we need to consume it, if present.
    if (inp[0]?.clause === 'close' && inp[0]?.slot === slot) inp.shift();
    return out.push({ slot, clauseContent });
  }
});

// Afterthought Clause (opener elided)
mainContentParsers.push((ctx, inp, out) => {
  if (inp[0]?.clause === 'close' && inp[0].slot !== ctx.ignoreAftClause) {
    const clauseContent = out.splice(0);
    if (clauseContent.length < 1) fail("Afterthought clauses can't be empty.");
    return out.push({ ...inp.shift(), clauseContent });
  }
});
  

Prepositions

Much like how Papsa words can be used as nouns or as verbs, they can also be used as prepositions. Consider the word `xuh`, which often is translated as "sky" or "fly," but can also be used as a verb to generally indicate that the subject is above some object. Using the grammar word `θu`, we can turn the following `xuh` into a preposition that indicates that the entire action of the clause is happening over something. If we want to specify what it's above, we simply give that content immediately after.

ina neimguih             |  Ina watches.
ina neimguih θu xuh      |  Ina watches from above.
ina neimguih θu xuh guk  |  Ina watches from above the fire.
  

In this way, we see `θu` as making a side-statement that treats the entire action as the subject, the content after it as the verb, and then (optionally) the object that the clause is relating to via that verb. As a result of this flexibility, Papsa arguably has thousands of prepositions, though in practice only a few dozen get used in everyday speech, and most are effectively untranslatable, and must be creatively adapted to capture the gist.

abi pun θu kuh maksi   |  Abi speaks towards Max.
abi pun θu naun maksi  |  Abi speaks for Max's benefit.
abi pun θu guk maksi   |  Abi speaks, and that burns Max.
  

The word `tci` is exactly like `θu`, but flips the relationship. The body of the clause is taken to be the object of the verb, and the additional content is the subject.

abi pun tci kuh ardjantina  |  Abi speaks from Argentina.
abi pun tci naun maksi      |  Abi speaks, thanks to Max.
abi pun tci fut             |  Abi is speaking inside.
  

A clause can be given any number of prepositions by simply using multiple preposition markers. If one wishes to give normal content after a preposition, the words `untc`, `antc`, and `intc` can be used to explicitly close a preposition, with the vowel indicating whether the next slot is a subject, verb, or object. To nest prepositions, repeat the preposition mark for each level of depth.

abi pun tci fut θu xuh maksi                                             |  Abi is speaking inside, over Max.
mainup kimnaun tci vuf mumkuh θu θu xujuc vufdut θu θu θu fic vufmumtat  |  The boy played near the river that descended from the mountains that split the continent.
  

const parsePreposition = (ctx, inp, out) => {
  if (inp[0]?.word === 'θu' || inp[0]?.word === 'tci') {
    for (let i = 0; i < ctx.prepDepth; i++)
      if (inp[0].word !== inp[1+i]?.word) return;  // Only parse if prepDepth matches.
    const w = inp.splice(0, 1+ctx.prepDepth)[0];   // Duplicated prep markers are dropped.

    const prepContent = [];
    parseContent(ctx, 'V', inp, prepContent) || fail(w.word+" must be followed by content.");
    while (parseContent(ctx, w.word === 'θu' ? 'O' : 'S', inp, prepContent)) {}
    while (parsePreposition({...ctx, prepDepth: ctx.prepDepth+1}, inp, prepContent)) {}

    const nextSlot = /^[uai]ntc$/.test(inp[0]?.word) ? VOWEL_SLOT[inp.shift().word[0]] : null;
    return out.push({ ...w, prepContent, ...(nextSlot && { nextSlot }) });
  }
}
miscClauseParsers.push(parsePreposition);
  

Sentence Delimiters and Connectives

To end a sentence and start a new one, Papsa speakers use the word `.`, which sounds like a "tsk!" tooth-sucking sound. Papsa prefers short sentences, rather than having complex conjunctions, but provides the words `uas` and `iur`, which go at the start of a sentence, and indicate that it relates to the previous statement either as a natural continuation or as a contrast/counterpoint, a bit like "and" and "but" in English.

pun naun. nuh cun         |  I am good. You are bad.
nuh bik. iur pun minbik   |  You ate, but I am hungry.
bup guk. uas ceim ei vin  |  The plant burned, and now it's dead.
  

When someone who has been speaking wants to signal that they are done speaking, or when someone who has been listening wants to start speaking, they can use `.` multiple times, almost like a throat-clearing noise.

Commands, Requests, and Questions

To mark a sentence as a polite request, put `ouei` at the start and end. (The opening `ouei` comes after connectives like `iur`.) Only one `ouei` is needed, and it's not uncommon for speakers to only give the end-of-sentence marker, but this is seen as somewhat rude, and we usually translate such sentences as commands. Use `ceiou` instead of `ouei` to prohibit.

nuh tum guk              |  You'll make a fire. (statement)
ouei nuh tum guk ouei    |  Please make a fire.
nuh tum guk ouei         |  Make a fire.
ceiou nuh tum guk ceiou  |  Please don't make a fire.
nuh tum guk ceiou        |  Don't make a fire.
  

In the same way that `ouei` marks a sentence as a command, the word `sou` marks a sentence as a yes-or-no question. It typically only shows up at the end of a sentence, but can technically be placed at the beginning.

nuh tum guk sou  |  Are you a fire maker?
  

It's common to answer such questions by repeating the verb, or by using the core words `nis` and `ciz` for "yes" and "no", respectively.

Papsa does not have a grammatical distinction between what/why/when/how. To ask such a question, the word `eis` is used (instead of `sou`) at the start of the sentence, and then somewhere in the sentence the word `ous` is used as a placeholder for the topic of inquiry.

eis nuh tum ous             |  What did you make?
eis nuh muk ei mazguih ous  |  How are you doing today?
  

const ousParser = (ctx, inp, out) => {
  if (inp[0]?.word === 'ous') return out.push({ ...inp.shift(), slot: ctx.defaultSlot });
};

const parseSentence = (inp, quoteDepth=0) => {
  const r = {};
  if (inp[0]?.word === 'uas' || inp[0]?.word === 'iur') r.connective = inp.shift();
  if (['ouei', 'ceiou', 'sou', 'eis'].includes(inp[0]?.word)) r.mood = inp.shift();
  const contentParsers = [...mainContentParsers, ...(r.mood?.word === 'eis' ? [ousParser] : [])];
  r.clause = parseClause({quoteDepth, prepDepth: 0, contentParsers}, inp);
  if (['ouei', 'ceiou', 'sou', 'eis'].includes(inp[0]?.word)) {
    const m = inp.shift();
    if (r.mood && r.mood.word !== m.word) fail("Mood mismatch.");
    r.mood = m;
  }
  return r;
};

const parseExpression = (inp, quoteDepth=0) => {
  if (inp.length === 0) {
    return [];
  } else if (inp[0].rawTok === '.' || inp[0].rawTok === ',') {
    let i = inp.findIndex(t => t.rawTok !== '.' && t.rawTok !== ',');
    if (i === -1) i = inp.length;
    if (i <= quoteDepth) return []; // Only parse if clicks exceed quote depth.
    inp.splice(0,i);
    return [{clicks: i - quoteDepth}, ...parseExpression(inp, quoteDepth)];
  } else {
    const before = inp.length;
    const sentence = parseSentence(inp, quoteDepth);
    if (inp.length === before)
      fail(`Unparseable input: ${inp.map(t => t.rawTok).join(' ')}`);
    return [sentence, ...parseExpression(inp, quoteDepth)];
  }
};
  

Odds and Ends

To address a person, the word `tu` can be used (usually at the start or end of a sentence), followed by that person's name.

punmain tu babi  |  Hello, Bobby
  

The word `iau` is used to quote the text/speech that follows (normally Papsa) and turn it into content. It is grammatical to explicitly close a quote by using a single click, which is usually more emphasized than the normal sentence delimiter, and often pronounced with a lateral or palatal click (like imitating a clock) instead of the dental "tsk," and written (for English speakers) using a comma instead of a period. Within a quote, sentence delimiters get repeated an additional time.

nuh pun iau nis,                                            |  You said "yes."
na pun iau na pun nis ouei.. uas xih, θu naun. nuh niŋ sou  |  For goodness' sake, it's said "Speak the truth and there will be freedom". Do you understand?
  

Foreign words are most typically embedded in Papsa by turning them into names. But when that's not trivial, the word `uau` can be used to embed foreign speech and convert it to Papsa content. Like with quotes, it is grammatical to always close foreign speech with the emphasized click (","). Explicitly closing with a click is somewhat burdensome, however, in certain contexts where it's clear what is and isn't Papsa. Thus, there is an alternative (and more popular) word, `uai`, which has the same meaning, but warns the audience that you're playing fast-and-loose and won't close the foreign speech explicitly.

suci naun kiti                                        |  Kitty likes sushi.
pun uau ran around the city , tci zus uai all night   |  I ran around the city all night.
  

miscClauseParsers.push((ctx, inp, out) => {
  if (inp[0]?.word === 'tu') {
    const addressee = [];
    return out.push({ ...inp.shift(), // Anchor on `tu`, then add addressee (or fail)
      ...((parseContent(ctx, 'O', inp, addressee) || fail("`tu` must be followed by content.")) && { addressee }),
      nextSlot: getNextSlot(out.at(-1)) });
  }
});

// Quote
mainContentParsers.push((ctx, inp, out) => {
  if (inp[0]?.word === 'iau') {
    const w = inp.shift();
    const quote = parseExpression(inp, ctx.quoteDepth + 1);
    // Unlike most places, quoted speech checks for the specific rawTok.
    // This is arguably not a perfect reflection of the spec, but it makes errors much more obvious.
    if (inp.shift()?.rawTok !== ',') fail("All Papsa quotes must be explicitly closed.");
    return out.push({ ...w, slot: ctx.defaultSlot, quote });
  }
});

// Explicitly-closed Foreign Speech
mainContentParsers.push((ctx, inp, out) => {
  if (inp[0]?.word === 'uau') {
    const w = inp.shift();
    // Unlike most places, quoted speech checks for the specific rawTok.
    // This is arguably not a perfect reflection of the spec, but it makes errors much more obvious.
    const i = inp.findIndex(t => t.rawTok === ',') + 1 || fail("`uau` demands an explicit closer.");
    return out.push({ ...w, slot: ctx.defaultSlot, foreign: inp.splice(0,i).slice(0,-1) }); // Slice out click.
  }
});

// Implicitly-closed Foreign Speech
mainContentParsers.push((ctx, inp, out) => {
  if (inp[0]?.word === 'uai') {
    const w = inp.shift();
    const i = inp.findIndex(t => ! t.probablyForeign);
    return out.push({ ...w, slot: ctx.defaultSlot, foreign: i === -1 ? inp.splice(0) : inp.splice(0,i) });
  }
});
  

Semantics

Papsa's lack of specific grammatical structures or inflections for things like tense and plurality allows for expressions that are more naturally vague and contextual than in many languages. To explicitly note, and thus emphasize, things like possibility or timing, it is typical to augment the verb or provide a preposition. To note plurality and gender, it is common to augment the relevant noun.

tina kimcukcuc ei cin   |  Tina might be awake / might wake up.
guk guih ei vin         |  The fire is glowing.
guk guih ei zous        |  The fire was glowing.
guk guih ei zeif        |  The fire will glow.
pun bik ei am vin zous  |  I have already eaten.
  

When multiple items fill the same clause slot (subject/verb/object), the statement becomes a claim that some selection from those items makes it true. In practice, listing multiple items usually implies that all of them are at least somewhat involved — even if only partially or in expectation — not merely that the listener may pick one arbitrarily. As with natural language generally, the literal and pragmatic readings can diverge.

To firmly claim that multiple parties were involved in an action, or that multiple actions were definitely taken, the speaker can form a group, using words like `ou`.

nau pun nau nuh na tum guk  |  You and/or I will make a fire.
pun nau nuh tum guk         |  You and/or I will make a fire.
pun ou nuh tum guk          |  You and I will make a fire together.
  

Association (`ui`) names an additional entity that is relevant to understanding the focal content. When both entities are inanimate, the most common translation into English is to use the word "of" to join the things. When one person is involved, the relationship is usually translated as ownership by the person, regardless of whether the person is the base or the associate. When two people are involved, this is usually seen as a familial connection.

bik ui bup   |   food of the plants    (for plants, from plants, or just notably plant-adjacent)
bup ui nup   |   the man's plant    (plant is focal; man is context)
nup ui bup   |   the man with the plant    (man is focal; plant is context)
  

Augmentation (`ei`), by contrast, is conceptual fusion: the base entity has the character of the augment, as though the two concepts were merged. The result is usually rendered as an adjective or adverb in English.

bik ei bup   |   vegetarian food    (food that has the character of plant)
bik ei mum   |   wet food           (food that has the character of water)
  

While augmented words and compound words using the same roots are often related, they are not interchangeable.

bik ui mum   |  food of the water   (e.g. food intended to be eaten on a boat)
bik ei mum   |  wet food            (e.g. soggy cereal)
bikmum       |  seafood             (e.g. clams)
bik ui bup   |  food of the plants  (e.g. fertilizer)
bik ei bup   |  vegetarian food     (e.g. veggie pizza)
bikbup       |  produce             (e.g. apples)
  

Times, Tenses, and Durations

This or That

Cardinals and Ordinals

When we augment a noun with a number, we think of the number as counting the noun. When we augment a verb, we think of the number counting the number of times the action happens. To say that there's an absence, we simply use the number zero.

bik ei sat guk   |   Three foods burned.
bik guk ei sat   |   The food was burned three times.
nup ei soun      |   nobody
  

To express that something comes after some number of things in an ordering, we associate it with the number of things that came before. This leads to an off-by-one dynamic when translating between Papsa and languages like English. The "first" item is associated with zero, the "second" goes with one, and so on. See the appendix for more on numbers.

bik ui sat guk   |   The fourth food burned.
bik guk ui sat   |   The food was burned by the fourth flame.
nup ui soun      |   first people
  

Greetings, Thanks, and Apology

Validation

You've made it through all the essential content. Congratulations! This section covers the last bits of code necessary to validate all the Papsa expressions on this page. This section and the appendices that follow are not essential to reading/writing/speaking Papsa, but may be helpful in learning, nonetheless.

const makeToken = (s) => {
  let base, ixs;
  try { base = baseLetters(s); ixs = wordIdxs(s); } catch {} // Non-letters (e.g. digits) leave these undefined.
  for (const t of tokenParsers) { try { const tok = t(s,base,ixs); if (tok) return tok; } catch {} }
  try {
    if (wordType(ixs) === 'core') // Core-shaped but undefined: a not-yet-coined compound, a typo, or foreign.
      return { rawTok: s, type: 'core', probablyForeign: true };
  } catch {} // wordType can throw
  return { rawTok: s, type: 'unknown', probablyForeign: true };
};
const tokenize = (text) => (text.match(/[.,]|[^\s.,]+/g) ?? []).map(makeToken);

// Skips .foreign (deliberate non-Papsa); recurses .quote (which is Papsa).
const lintExpr = (expr, found) => {
  for (const item of expr) if (item?.clause) item.clause.forEach(c => lintContent(c, found));
};
const lintContent = (c, found) => {
  if (!c || typeof c !== 'object') return;
  const isLeaf = c.rawTok !== undefined && c.type !== undefined &&
    !c.clauseContent && !c.phraseContent && !c.prepContent && !c.quote && !c.foreign && !c.addressee;
  if (isLeaf) {
    if (c.type === 'unknown' || (c.probablyForeign && c.type !== 'name' && c.type !== 'pronoun')) found.push(c);
    return;
  }
  for (const k of ['phraseContent','clauseContent','prepContent','addressee']) c[k]?.forEach(x => lintContent(x, found));
  if (c.quote) lintExpr(c.quote, found);
};
  

Examples

neim kud. pif xarc sou   |  The feeling is compelling. Will the gift disappear? (Papsa's canonical pangram. Has the letters almost in order.)
tat                      |  It's big.
naun                     |  That's good.
dut tat                  |  Stone is heavy.
tat nuh                  |  Giants listen.
pun vin                  |  I am here.
guk figuk                |  The fire is red.
pun guk bik              |  I burn the food.
bik guk pun              |  The food burns me.
nuh bik bup ei tat       |  You ate a big plant.
tut fiksuip im huh kiuh  |  The stone was as yellow as the glowing sky.
xufaf naun ei vin        |  The weather is currently good.
ciftoldi ei minbikuk     | There was a very hungry caterpillar.
  

Philosophy

Papsa is designed to be culturally universal. One way of thinking about this is to imagine that it is designed to be relatively natural for not just humans across time and, space, but also for non-human animals, artificial intelligences, and aliens. The phonology tries not to lean too heavily on distinctions that are only present in some languages (eg tones, voicedness, aspiration), and while the romanized text is shaped for Anglophones, the base orthography is intended to be accessible to everyone.

As a result of this universality, Papsa avoids making presumptions about the people who use it. Gender is naturally absent, for example, and words like `nup` apply just as much to non-human people as they do to humans. (The definition includes lots of human-centric words because that's often a reasonable way to translate the word into English, which is human-centric.) The core words don't have any of the "human universal" small words like "dog" and "hand" because, again, not all beings will find those things to be basic concepts.

It's normal for Papsa to get adapted into specific contexts through importing important concepts via naming them. For example, English speakers might recognize the Papsa name `iuman` as the word for "human", even though non-English Papsa speakers would not. Still, there are some proper nouns that are so important and common that they get universal names.

| Papsa Name  | English   | Notes            |
|-------------|-----------|------------------|
| `vufua`     | Earth     |                  |
| `vufuduta`  | Luna      |                  |
| `guixuvina` | Sol       | Often just "ina" |
| `vufusama`  | Milky Way |                  |
| `mazgu`     | day       | 24 hour period   |
| `aihat`     | sit       | Papsa is intended to be so neutral that it doesn't even privilege the human form. As such, there's no core word for sitting, as that pose isn't universal among body plans. The closest core word is `fifsaihat` (literally "half pose"), which is used for deliberately being diagonal. `aihat` is a pun on that and `hat`, since sitting down can also make someone take up less space. |
| `ikneimfic` | laugh     | Where `neimfic` is about the experience of humor, `ikneimfic` is about the sound of laughter and the specific expression of amusement. Can also be used to capture humorless laughter. |
| `ikneimcun` | cry, weep | Where `neimcun` is about the experience of sadness, `ikneimcun` is about the particular act of crying and weeping that humans do, regardless of the feeling behind it (e.g. happy crying still counts). |
    TODO MORE
  

for (const [name,row] of papsaNames["Papsa Name"]) {
  names[baseLetters(name)] = { word: name, meaning: row['English'], notes: row['Notes'] };
}
  

Body Parts

Buildings, Towns, and Cities

Color

Coordinates and Directions

TODO Add these to the dictionary and explain https://utopiandreams.substack.com/p/maps-and-addresses

naunuŋ | value (subjective)
miniŋ | curiosity (non-emotive)
kanuŋ | to learn
tinuŋ | soul
paunaun | hint
funuŋ | culture (especially what was learned in childhood)
neimin | yearning (TK check with other emotions)
mamin | improve (things change in a desired way)
kimain | awaken (or start moving)
tumain | inventor
pimain | newborn, new ward, newly adopted child
feimain | fusion (new/young blending/combining)
nikan | optimal
..
pauneim | emotional expression
..
figuk | red
..
nikud | motivation
..
tigab | net
  

Credence, Speculation, and Theory

Days, Times, and Dates

Elements and Atoms

Emotion

Family

Food and Drink

Gender and Sexuality

Taxonomy of Earth Organisms

Units of Measurement

Mathematics

Numbers

Papsa leans heavily on base six, the best radix. This shows up in the way the primal consonants in grammar words can indicate quantity, but it's also prominent in the counting words. When children are first learning to count, they use the basic numbers, which range from zero to five (and can thus be represented by fingers on one hand). These numbers all start with "s" and have distinct vowels, roughly in alphabetical order (with primes given single vowels, and thus diphthongs being treated as preceding singles), as well as the corresponding primal consonant at the end.

| Papsa Word | Arabic Numeral | Papsa Numeral |
|------------|----------------|---------------|
| `soun`     | 0              | `0`           |
| `saum`     | 1              | `1`           |
| `suk`      | 2              | `2`           |
| `sat`      | 3              | `3`           |
| `seip`     | 4              | `4`           |
| `sif`      | 5              | `5`           |
  

These root words can be combined in regular ways to express any natural number, using little-endian base-six. If we combine `sat` with `sat`, for example, we drop the middle `s` and just get `satat` — 33 in base-six, which is 3×1 + 3×6 = twenty-one. Again, this is little endian, so we read the digits as first the number of ones, then the number of sixes, then number of thirty-sixes, and so on. In this way, the reader can (theoretically) always tell what digit they're on, even when the number is long.

sukif             | `25` = 2×6⁰ + 5×6¹ = thirty-two
sifouneipaum      | `5041` = 5×6⁰ + 0×6¹ + 4×6² + 1×6³ = three-hundred-sixty-five
sounatukeipififat | `0324553` = 0×6⁰ + 3×6¹ + 2×6² + 4×6³ + 5×6⁴ + 5×6⁵ + 3×6⁶ = one-hundred-eighty-six-thousand, two-hundred-eighty-two
  

This number system is more compact than spoken English, but because six is less than ten, it's slightly less efficient when writing out digits. But adults do not usually use the basic numbers when writing. Instead, they use compact numbers. Compact numbers are still thought of as being "in base six" for most purposes, such as arithmetic. But they're "stored with two digits per syllable/symbol," in effect using base thirty-six. In order not to clutter the namespace, compact numbers all start with "sl". Like basic numbers, they can be combined in a little-endian fashion, dropping the "sl" when it occurs in the middle of a word.

  TODO Should I programmatically generate this block or test against it?
sloun         | Zero
slaum         | One
...
slif          | Five
slaukt        | Six
slaux         | Seven
slurt         | Eight
slark         | Nine
sluf          | Ten
slauj         | Eleven
slukt         | Twelve
slauz         | Thirteen
slux          | Fourteen
slaf          | Fifteen
slurp         | Sixteen
slaur         | Seventeen
slakt         | Eighteen
slaug         | Nineteen
sleif         | Twenty
slax          | Twenty-one
sluj          | Twenty-two
slaud         | Twenty-three
...
slaub         | Twenty-nine
slikt         | Thirty
slauv         | Thirty-one
slurf         | Thirty-two
slaj          | Thirty-three
slur          | Thirty-four
slix          | Thirty-five
slounaum      | Thirty-six
slaumaum      | Thirty-seven
slukaum       | Thirty-eight
...
slifuf        | Three-hundred-sixty-five
...
slaktuzixat   | One-hundred-eighty-six-thousand, two-hundred-eighty-two
  

Astute readers will notice that there are patterns in the names of the compact numbers that extend beyond what we've already discussed. In particular:

• Multiples of six all use the vowels that correspond to the multiple, followed by "kt".
• Primes use the vowel "au" followed by voiced consonants (and x) chosen in alphabetical order, eventually wrapping (after r) around to the plosives again (skipping the nasals).
• If a number can be written as xⁿ (where n ≥ 2), use a vowel corresponding to the (smallest) base, then "r", then a consonant corresponding to the (largest) exponent.
• All other numbers up to 35 can be written as the product of a factor less than 6 and a prime. We take the vowel from the smaller factor and the consonant from the larger (prime) factor.

Numbers occupy a somewhat unique position, linguistically, in that they are right on the border between regular patterns in reality — implying they should have core words — and unique entities that can be given names. As such, in addition to the core words described here, it's also totally valid to prefix a number with "ou" or to drop the leading "sl" if it's clear from context that you're naming a number. So, for example, `slifuf`, `ouslifuf`, and `ifuf` all refer to three-hundred-sixty-five. The first form is the most normal, the second form is useful to clarify that you're talking about the number itself, rather than a quantity of real things (like days), and the final form is useful if you want to be even more terse.

// TODO Make sure the translator widget can port between different representations, including digits interpreted in base six and base ten!

const digitSuff = []; // After being populated below, holds 36 strings for the digit suffixes.
const digitVowel = []; // Same, but only for the vowels.
const bySuffix = {}; // Base-letter suffix -> corresponding numerical digit
const registerDigit = (n,s) => { bySuffix[baseLetters(s)] = n; digitSuff[n] = s; digitVowel[n] = s.replace(/[^aeiou]+$/i,''); };

for (const [word, row] of basicNumbers['Papsa Word']) registerDigit(+row['Arabic Numeral'], word.slice(1)); // 0-5
for (const n of [6,12,18,24,30]) registerDigit(n, digitVowel[n/6]+'kt');
const primeConsonants = {7:'x',11:'j',13:'z',17:'r',19:'g',23:'d',29:'b',31:'v'}; // Not counting 2,3,5
for (const n in primeConsonants)
  for (let a = 1; a*n < 36; a++)
    registerDigit(a*n, digitVowel[a]+primeConsonants[n]);
for (const n of [3,4,5]) registerDigit(2 ** n, digitVowel[2]+'r'+digitSuff[n].slice(-1));
for (const n of [2,3]) registerDigit(3 ** n, digitVowel[3]+'r'+digitSuff[n].slice(-1));
registerDigit(5 ** 2, digitVowel[5]+'r'+digitSuff[2].slice(-1));
for (const a of [2,3,4]) registerDigit(a*5, digitVowel[a]+digitSuff[5].slice(-1));

// Consumes a string of BASE LETTERS and returns the corresponding digits
const lettersToDigits = (s, compact) => {
  const xs = s.match(/[UAI]*[^UAI]+|[UAI]+/g) ?? [];
  return xs.map(x => compact || bySuffix[x] < 6 ? bySuffix[x] : undefined);
};

const digitsToNum = (ds, radix) => ds.reduceRight((n, d) => n * radix + d, 0);

const numberDigits = (n, radix) => {
  const ds = []; do { ds.push(n % radix); n = Math.floor(n / radix); } while (n > 0);
  return ds;  // little-endian
};
const numberWord = (n, compact) =>
  (compact ? 'sl' : 's') + numberDigits(n, compact ? 36 : 6).map(d => digitSuff[d]).join('');

const numberEntry = (n, compact) => ({
  word: numberWord(n, compact),
  value: n,
  baseSix: numberDigits(n, 6).join(''),
  verbMeaning:      `to be ${n} times, to do ${n} times`,
  nounMeaning:      `${n}`,
  adjectiveMeaning: `${n}`,
  adverbMeaning:    `${n} times`,
});

// Papsa numbers written with digits. (Little-endian base six)
tokenParsers.push((s) => {
  if (!/^[0-5]+$/.test(s)) return;
  return { rawTok: s, type: 'number', ...numberEntry(digitsToNum([...s].map(Number), 6), false) };
});

// Papsa numbers written with letters.
// Splice instead of push to go after the grammar tokenizer but before the generic name tokenizer.
tokenParsers.splice(1,0,(s,base,ixs) => {
  const prefix = base.match(/^(?:UU)?SL?/)?.[0] ?? "";
  const compact = ! prefix || prefix.endsWith("L");
  const digits = lettersToDigits(base.slice(prefix.length), compact);
  const n = digitsToNum(digits, compact ? 36 : 6);
  if ( ! Number.isFinite(n)) return; // Don't parse NaN
  return { rawTok: s, type: 'number', ...numberEntry(n,compact) };
});
  

TODO Fractions (aih as changeover syllable)

TODO Scientific Notation

TODO Special quantities (e, tau, phi, i, etc)

TODO juc Negatives

Algebra

TODO: faf for equations, pronoun variables starting with is__ and having flipped number suffixes, like isnu isma iski

Infinity and Infinitesimal Calculus

TODO: I can’t be bothered to count (>2 implied) = suat; I couldn’t count if I tried, but it’s possible in principle = suatuat; Infinite (vague) = suaf; Countably infinite (ℵ₀) = suafun; Uncountably infinite (𝔠) = suafuʃ (“swafoosh”)

Category and Set Theory

TODO

Tensors and Linear Algebra

TODO

Proofs and Logic

TODO

Orthography

TODO

Compounds

While Papsa's root words are the heart of its vocabulary, to speak with any normal amount of precision and clarity, one must use compound words that are structurally composed of one or more root words fused together. As a basic rule of thumb, a compound is like taking a root word and augmenting it with another root, then taking that word and augmenting with another root, and so on. In other words, compounds are most semantically similar to the leftmost root, and are left-associating in how they're composed. But of course, this is just a heuristic. The meaning of a compound is often divergent from what the augmented roots would imply, usually by being more specific, but also sometimes in being just plain different.

When forming a compound by adding a root word on to the right of an existing word, start by "deleting the space" and then follow these general rules for making sure the resulting mid-word consonant cluster is valid:

• Delete duplicated consonants. Papsa doesn't recognize any duplicated letters except "u", "i", and ".". Remember that "k" and "g" are the same consonant, et cetera. Prefer the sound from the right-side, when there's a conflict, except in the case of "h" which always loses to "x".
• Soften instances of "j" that follow a plosive into "c".
• Remove instances of "h" (or "x") that are next to other consonants.
• Ensure you haven't created a homonym collision with any other words (looking only at the base letters!). If there's a collision, you're probably re-inventing the wheel, and you should ask if there's a better way to express the concept in question. If there isn't, consider adding an "l" and changing the pronunciation of the primary consonant(s) to more clearly distinguish from the existing word.

As an example, let's combine `sih` and `xih` to make a word meaning something like "unordered list" (a bit of an oxymoron, but hey, it's a concept in English). First, we combine, and get "sihxih". The middle letters are both `H`, so we collapse that cluster down to simply "x", and get `sixih`. Now suppose we want to compound that again to invent a word for "an unordered list that is divided into sections" by adding `fic` to the end. "sixihfic" doesn't have any double-letters, but we need to get rid of the internal h. The final result is `sixific`. But now what if someone else has already combined `sihif` ("steps") with `fic` to create `sihific` ("divided steps"?). Despite the slight difference in pronunciation, this would have the same (non-annotated) spelling, so we'd be forced to change our word to something like `sixiflic`.

In practice, namespace collisions are very rare, which is why the example is somewhat contrived. As long as neologisms are reserved for concepts with real generality and utility, things stay fairly natural.

All Compound Words

English usually doesn't have adverbs that cover specific concepts. When absent, consider the adverb use to basically be "like-an-X" for whatever the noun form of the word is.

| Word | Roots | Verb | Noun | Adjective | Adverb | Notes |
|------|-------|------|------|-----------|--------|-------|
| `mumum` | `mum`, `mum` | to hydrate | water, H2O, liquid water | hydrated | - | |
| `mumvuf` | `mum`, `vuf` | to be the ocean near | ocean, sea, great lake | tidal, oceanic, marine | - | |
| `mazmum` | `maz`, `mum` | to bubble-up through | bubble | bubbling, bubbly | bubblingly | |
| `vufmum` | `vuf`, `mum` | - | coastland, island, peninsula, beach, shore, swamp, wetland, marsh | - | - | |
| `vufmumtat` | `vufmum`, `tat` | to be the continent containing | continent | continental | - | |
| `dutvuf` | `dut`, `vuf` | to challenge a (perhaps metaphorical) mountain-climber | mountain, peak, summit | mountainous | - | |
| `vufdut` | `vuf`, `dut` | to be the mountainous region near | mountain range, mountains | mountainous | - | |
| `mumcuk` | `mum`, `cuk` | to freeze | ice, frost, snow | icy, frosty, snowy | icily | |
| `mumcuktat` | `mumcuk`, `tat` | to encase in ice | glacier, iceberg | glacial | glacially | |
| `mumkuh` | `mum`, `kuh` | to wash, to flood, to rinse | river, stream, creek, brook, flood | fluvial, riparian, riverine, flooded, washed-up, washed-away | - | |
| `maukuh` | `mauk`, `xuh` | to behave like a bird | bird, avian | avian, birdlike, feathered | - | |
| `maukmum` | `mauk`, `mum` | to behave like a marine animal | fish, shellfish, whale, dolphin, shark, plankton, jellyfish | aquatic, marine, fishy | - | |
| `maukcoum` | `mauk`, `coum` | to swarm, to squirm, to crawl | insect, arthropod, arachnid, worm, bug | insectile, swarming, skittering, crawling | - | |
| `xufik` | `xuh`, `fik` | to (with many colors) hang above | rainbow, spectrum | spectral | - | |
| `xujuc` | `xuh`, `juc` | to drop, to be below, to sink, to fall off, to descend from | land, underworld, lowlands, ocean floor, gravity well | low, fallen, sunken, downward | - | |
| `hascap` | `has`, `cap` | to stab, to impale, to gouge, to skewer | blade, spike, sword, spear, barb, skewer | pointy, spiky, sharp | sharply | |
| `hasuh` | `has`, `xuh` | to rise above, to point upwards | peak, spire, pole, tower | towering | - | |
| `kuxuh` | `kuh`, `xuh` | to jump, to take off, to climb, to rise, to ascend, to lift off, to float up | launch-pad, spring, leg, rocket, wing | rising, floating, springy, bouncy, ascending | ascendingly | |
| `tautaz` | `taut`, `taz` | to lay out, to place on a table, to reveal on a table | table, counter, surface, desk, bench, platform, altar | tabular | - | |
| `tautun` | `taut`, `hun` | to use a door | door, gate, portal, entrance, exit, opening, passage | doored, gated | - | |
| `punmain` | `pun`, `main` | to greet, to hail, to say hello | greeter, introducer, newcomer-to-conversation | greeting, initiating | initially | |
| `pundut` | `pun`, `dut` | to say goodbye, to conclude, to end a conversation, to sign off, to hang up, to disconnect | ender-of-conversation | closing, final, concluding | terminally | |
| `figuk` | `fik`, `guk` | to be as red as | red | red | - | |
| `fiksoun` | `fik`, `soun` | to be as red as | red | red | - | |
| `figuih` | `fik`, `guih` | to be as yellow as | yellow | yellow | - | |
| `fiksaum` | `fik`, `saum` | to be as yellow as | yellow | yellow | - | |
| `fikbup` | `fik`, `bup` | to be as green as | green | green | - | |
| `fiksuk` | `fik`, `suk` | to be as green as | green | green | - | |
| `fikuh` | `fik`, `xuh` | to be as cyan as | cyan | cyan | - | |
| `fiksat` | `fik`, `sat` | to be as cyan as | cyan | cyan | - | |
| `fikmum` | `fik`, `mum` | to be as blue as | blue | blue | - | |
| `fikseip` | `fik`, `seip` | to be as blue as | blue | blue | - | |
| `fiknuŋ` | `fik`, `nuŋ` | to be as purple as | purple, magenta | purple, magenta | - | |
| `fiksif` | `fik`, `sif` | to be as purple as | purple, magenta | purple, magenta | - | |
| `fikjuc` | `fik`, `juc` | to be as dark as | blackness, darkness | black, dark | darkly | |
| `fikzuip` | `fik`, `zuip` | to be as light as | white, lightness, brightness | white, bright, light | brightly | |
| `vufzuip` | `vuf`, `zuip` | to be the universe of | universe, world | universal | universally | |
| `vufusoun` | `vuf`, `xuh`, `soun` | to be the (home) galactic cluster of | galactic cluster | - | - | |
| `vufusaum` | `vuf`, `xuh`, `saum` | to be the (home) galaxy of | galaxy | galactic | - | |
| `guixuh` | `guih`, `xuh` | to be the nearest star to | star | stellar | - | |
| `vufusuk` | `vuf`, `xuh`, `suk` | to be the nearest star to | star | stellar | - | |
| `vufuh` | `vuf`, `xuh` | to be the planet of | planet, world | planetary | - | |
| `vufusat` | `vuf`, `xuh`, `sat` | to be the planet of | planet, world | planetary | - | |
| `vufudut` | `vuf`, `xuh`, `dut` | to be the moon of | moon, satellite | lunar | - | |
| `vufuseip` | `vuf`, `xuh`, `seip` | to be the moon of | moon, satellite | lunar | - | |
| `mazguih` | `maz`, `guih` | to (with the changing light) repeat | day | daily | daily | |
| `mazguiguih` | `mazguih`, `guih` | to (in the daytime) reveal | daytime, day, daylight | diurnal | - | |
| `mazguijuc` | `mazguih`, `juc` | to (in the night) conceal | night, nighttime | nocturnal, nightly | nightly | |
| `xufaf` | `xuh`, `faf` | to be weather affecting | weather | - | - | |
| `xuguih` | `xuh`, `guih` | to be sunshine upon | sunshine, sun | sunny | sunnily | |
| `xumum` | `xuh`, `mum` | to rain on, to snow on, to sleet, to hail, to precipitate | rain, precipitation, snow, sleet, hail | rainy, stormy | - | |
| `hufmum` | `huf`, `mum` | to rain on | rain | rainy | - | |
| `hufcuk` | `huf`, `cuk` | to snow on, to be snow on, to sleet, to hail | snow, sleet, hail | snowy | - | |
| `huvin` | `huf`, `vin` | to (as fog) envelop | fog | foggy | - | |
| `xukim` | `xuh`, `kim` | to blow | wind | windy | - | |
| `xukimat` | `xukim`, `hat` | to blow gently on | breeze | breezy | - | |
| `naunuŋ` | `naun`, `nuŋ` | to be valued by, to matter to, to be treasured by | value, values, worth, treasure | valued, precious, cherished, treasured, meaningful | meaningfully, dearly | Where `naun` is being good for someone whether or not they recognize it, `naunuŋ` is goodness as it registers in a mind — what an agent actually cares about. The two come apart whenever someone treasures what harms them, or is helped by something they never notice. Compare `neimnaun`, which is the feeling of things going well, rather than the valuing itself. |
| `miniŋ` | `min`, `niŋ` | to be curious about, to wonder about, to want to know, to inquire into | curiosity, inquisitiveness, wonder, open question | curious, inquisitive, questioning, unresolved | curiously, inquisitively | The drive to know, described as a fact about what a mind is seeking rather than as a feeling — a search process can have `miniŋ` without there being anything it is like to be it. Compare `neimnuŋ`, which is fascination as an experience. |
| `kanuŋ` | `kan`, `nuŋ` | to learn, to study, to come to understand, to raise a mind | learning, study, education, schooling | educated, learned, studious, formative | studiously | The first vowel is "a", so the noun is the activity rather than the student or the teacher. Note that `kan` puts the enhancer in the subject slot, so read strictly `kanuŋ` is the raising of a mind — teaching as readily as learning. The reflexive case, a mind enhancing itself, is the common one and the reason this is usually glossed "to learn". |
| `tinuŋ` | `tiŋ`, `nuŋ` | to be the soul of, to be the innermost self of, to be what someone essentially is | soul, essential self, innermost self, character | soulful, innermost, essential, deep | deeply, essentially | The condensed core of a mind — whatever would remain if the incidentals were stripped away. `tinuŋ` carries no commitment to an afterlife, to an immaterial substance, or even to there being exactly one per mind; it names the essence and leaves the metaphysics to the speaker. |
| `funuŋ` | `fun`, `nuŋ` | to raise, to form the mind of, to be the upbringing of | culture, upbringing, heritage, tradition, formative background | cultural, traditional, ancestral, formative | culturally, traditionally | The mind-shaping someone came out of, especially in childhood — the content, not the group that carries it. Any mind with an upbringing has a `funuŋ`, so the word extends past human societies without strain. |
| `paunaun` | `paun`, `naun` | to hint at, to allude to, to point helpfully toward, to tip off about | hint, clue, tip, pointer, cue | suggestive, indicative, telling, leading | suggestively | A sign offered for the benefit of whoever reads it. A `paunaun` is characteristically incomplete — it points toward the answer instead of stating it — but this implies nothing about concealment; the withholding may be kindness, brevity, or pedagogy. |
| `neimin` | `neim`, `min` | to yearn for, to long for, to pine for, to miss | yearning, longing, wistfulness, homesickness | yearning, longing, wistful, homesick | yearningly, wistfully | Where `min` is the bare fact of wanting something, `neimin` is wanting as it is felt — the ache rather than the gap. Belongs to the `neim` emotion series alongside `neimnaun` and `neimcun`. |
| `mamin` | `mam`, `min` | to improve, to get better, to change for the better | improvement, progress, change for the better | improving, better, progressive | progressively | The first vowel is "a", so the noun is the change itself rather than the thing improved. Unlike `kan`, which puts an enhancer in the subject slot, `mamin` says only that things moved toward what was wanted; a recovery, a thaw, or a lucky turn all qualify. |
| `kimain` | `kim`, `main` | to start moving, to stir, to rouse, to come to life | stirring, onset of motion, first movement | stirring, rousing, newly active | - | The moment motion begins, rather than the state that follows. Distinct from `kimcukcuc`, which is wakefulness as the negation of `kimcuk` (sleep): a stalled cart can `kimain` without having slept, and a still, watchful animal is `kimcukcuc` with no `kimain` in sight. |
| `tumain` | `tum`, `main` | to invent, to originate, to pioneer, to make for the first time | inventor, originator, innovator, pioneer | inventive, innovative, original, pioneering | inventively | The first vowel is "u", so the noun is the maker rather than the invention. `tum` alone is anyone who makes; `tumain` is reserved for making a thing of a kind that did not exist yet. |
| `pimain` | `pim`, `main` | to be newly taken care of by, to be newly raised by | new parent, new caretaker, adoptive parent, foster parent, new guardian, new mentor | newly parental, adoptive, fostering | - | Names the caretaker's side of a new care relationship. `pim` puts the ward in the subject slot, so the verb reads "is newly cared for by" while the noun is the one doing the caring. Adoption, fostering, a new mentor and a new nurse all qualify alongside a first-time birth parent. Compare `papmain`, which names the child instead. |
| `feimain` | `feim`, `main` | to fuse, to merge into something new, to synthesize | fusion, synthesis, merger, new whole | fused, merged, synthesized, hybrid | - | Combining that yields something new, as against `feim`, where the parts survive the mixing. A salad is `feim`; an alloy, a creole, or a merged company is `feimain`. |
| `nikan` | `nik`, `kan` | to be optimal for, to be the best available for, to maximize | optimum, best case, ideal, ceiling | optimal, ideal, best, peak | optimally, ideally | Always optimal relative to some `nik` — a goal — never in the abstract. Calling a thing `nikan` invites the question "for what?", and speakers usually supply it. |
| `pauneim` | `paun`, `neim` | to express feeling about, to emote, to show how one feels | emotional expression, affect, tone, body language | expressive, emotive, demonstrative | expressively | The outward sign of an inner state, through whatever channel a speaker has — face, voice, posture, color, exhaust plume. Carries no claim of sincerity: a `pauneim` can be performed, mistaken, or read wrongly. |
| `nikud` | `nik`, `kud` | to motivate, to drive toward a goal, to spur | motivation, drive, incentive, reason for acting | motivated, driven, motivating | - | The push toward a `nik`, from inside or out: appetite, duty, a paycheck and a threat are all `nikud`. Where `kud` is bare force, `nikud` is force with a direction. |
| `tigab` | `tik`, `gab` | to net, to catch in a net, to ensnare deliberately | net, mesh, web, snare | netted, meshed, woven | - | `gab` covers webs and traps of every origin; `tigab` is the made kind, a `tik` built to entangle. The mesh sense extends readily to networks and grids, where what gets caught is traffic rather than fish. |
| `neimnaun` | `neim`, `naun` | to enjoy, to love, to be happy | happiness, joy, love, tranquility, serenity, ecstasy | happy, exuberant, joyous | happily | |
| `neimfut` | `neim`, `fut` | to be grateful for, to appreciate, to recognize | gratitude, appreciation, recognition | grateful, appreciative | gratefully, appreciatively | |
| `neimfic` | `neim`, `fic` | to laugh at, to find something funny, to be amused by, to enjoy | humor, joke | funny, hilarious, amusing | hilariously, amusingly | |
| `neimcun` | `neim`, `cun` | to be sad about, to feel bad about | sadness, anguish, misery, suffering | sad, miserable, pathetic, depressed | sadly, miserably | |
| `neimcap` | `neim`, `cap` | to be angry about, to rage at, to fight with | anger, rage, fury | angry, infuriating | angrily, infuriatingly | |
| `neimcin` | `neim`, `cin` | to fear, to dread, to worry about | fear, horror, dread, worry, terror | afraid, scary, scared, fearful, fearsome, horrified, horrifying, worried, worrying, anxious, terrified, terrifying | fearfully, fearsomely, horrifyingly, anxiously | This is a word where the vagueness of `neim` does not map to English very naturally. In most contexts, if it's ambiguous, you should interpret `neimcin` as refering to the one who is afraid (or the experience of fear) rather than externally fearsome things, which in Papsa are more naturally described as directly-bad, rather than implying badness by describing the emotion they invoke. |
| `neimguk` | `neim`, `guk` | to be in pain, to hurt, to endure | pain, injury, anguish | painful, pained | painfully | |
| `neimcuk` | `neim`, `cuk` | to be calm, to relax, to sit with, to be bored by | calm, tranquility, boredom | calm, neutral, bored, boring, tranquil | calmly | |
| `neimpap` | `neim`, `pap` | to love | love | lovely, loving | lovingly | |
| `neimcapcuk` | `neimcap`, `cuk` | to hate, to despise | hatred | hated, despicable | despicably | |
| `neimnuŋ` | `neim`, `nuŋ` | to be fascinated by, to be hypnotized by, to get lost in | fascination | fascinating, fascinated, entranced, hypnotized, oblivious, lost | fascinatingly | |
| `neimtif` | `neim`, `tif` | to visit, to tour | visitor, tourist | visiting, touring, touristy | - | |
| `minbik` | `min`, `bik` | to hunger for | hunger | hungry | hungrily | |
| `guinaun` | `guih`, `naun` | to attract | beauty | beautiful, attractive | beautifully | |
| `guicun` | `guih`, `cun` | to repel, to repulse, to disgust | ugliness | ugly, gross, repulsive, disgusting | disgustingly | |
| `neimguih` | `neim`, `guih` | to see, to look, to watch, to observe, to gaze, to spot, to notice | sight, appearance, look, vision, witness | visual, visible, watched | visibly | Unlike `nuguih`, this focuses mostly on the raw experience of sight, rather than the mental motion of searching. |
| `nuguih` | `nuh`, `guih` | to look, to watch, to see, to observe, to gaze, to search | observer, watcher, watchman, scout, audience, viewer | watching, looking, surveilling, attentive, awake, alert, observant | - | Unlike `neimguih`, this carries a connotation of active alertness and looking for something. |
| `neimik` | `neim`, `hik` | to hear | hearing, sound | audible, noisy | audibly | If a tree falls in a forest, and nobody is nearby, it makes `hik` but not `neimik`. Unlike `nuhik`, this focuses mostly on the raw experience of sound, rather than the mental motion of listening. |
| `nuhik` | `nuh`, `hik` | to listen | listener, audience | listening | - | Unlike `neimik`, this carries a connotation of active alertness and paying attention. |
| `neimneim` | `neim`, `neim` | to feel, to touch | touching, feeling | tactile, visceral | - | Mostly used for touching things with skin, but can also be used for felt senses of the body, such as proprioception, stomach aches, stiffness, et cetera. |
| `nuneim` | `nuh`, `neim` | to read with the hands | - | - | - | Mostly for blind people. Used for Braille, but also can work for a person in a dark room trying to figure out what something is by feeling it. |
| `neimuh` | `neim`, `xuh` | to smell | scent, smell, odor | smelly, scented | - | |
| `neimum` | `neim`, `mum` | to taste | taste, flavor | tasty, flavorful, pungent | - | |
| `fifsoun` | `fif`, `soun` | to arrange horizontally, to lie down, to position parallel to the primary axis | - | horizontal | horizontally | There's a connotation of deliberate positioning that is distinct from `taz`. When used to talk about a human lying down, there's an implication that the person is on their side and perhaps holding their head upright. Compare with `fifsuk`; contrast with `fifsaum`, `fifsaihat`, and `aihat`. |
| `fifsaum` | `fif`, `saum` | to arrange vertically, to stand up, to position parallel to the secondary axis | - | vertical | vertically | Can be used to talk about a human, tree, or other "standing" thing, but should not be used for the meaning of "stand" that is about existence ("there stood three men..."), since this word strongly implies a deliberately vertical order, rather than an incidental verticality. |
| `fifsaihat` | `fif`, `saihat` | to arrange diagonally, to tilt, to lean | slant, slope | diagonal, leaning, slanted | diagonally | Can be used to talk about a human, tree, or similar thing leaning on something, but there's a connotation of deliberate order that implies the angle isn't from a fall. See also: `aihat`. |
| `fifsuk` | `fif`, `suk` | to arrange depthwise, to lie down, to position parallel to the tertiary axis | - | deep | deeply | There's a connotation of deliberate positioning that is distinct from `taz`. When used to talk about a human lying down, there's an implication that the person is on their back (not sitting up or on their side) and perhaps looking towards their toes. Compare with `fifsoun`; contrast with `fifsaum`, `fifsaihat`, and `aihat`. |
| `kimcuk` | `kim`, `cuk` | to sleep, to rest, to be dormant, to be still | sleep, nap, rest | sleepy | sleepily | Does not demand unconsciousness. Can apply to machines, bacteria, governments, et cetera. |
| `kimcukcuc` | `kimcuk`, `juc` | to awake, to be awake, to be active | awakening | awake | - | |
| `kimneim` | `kim`, `neim` | to dance | dance | dancing | - | |
| `hikneim` | `hik`, `neim` | to sing, to play music, to make sounds for | song, music, audio | singing, musical | musically | While not intrinsically about human music, this word captures the act of making noise so that someone else hears it, and an implication that the noise is not just about symbolic words. Crickets chirping, alarms sounding, and poetry all count, though the most central implication is music. |
| `tumpaun` | `tum`, `paun` | to write | writer, author | authorial | authorially | |
| `kuneim` | `kuh`, `neim` | to walk, to travel, to visit, to stroll, to wander, to tour, to journey, to walkabout | walker, wanderer, traveler, tourist | - | - | Largely about walking, traveling, and so on for the experience, rather than to pragmatically get somewhere (or for exercise). |
| `bineim` | `bih`, `neim` | to have the capacity to sense | sense organ, sensor | sensory | - | |
| `bineimik` | `bineim`, `hik` | to be able to hear, to have ears | ear | aural | - | |
| `buptat` | `bup`, `tat` | to grow big | tree, forest, wood | arboreal | - | |
| `ficbup` | `fic`, `bup` | to grow leaves, to shed leaves | leaf | leafy | - | Implication that the leaves come off the main plant in some sense. Still applies to permanent leaves, but less centrally. |
| `bupfik` | `bup`, `fik` | to bloom, to grow flowers, to sexually mature | flower | floral | - | |
| `mainbup` | `main`, `bup` | to seed, to germinate | seed, grain, cereal | seeded | - | |
| `bupmain` | `bup`, `main` | to fruit, to bear fruit, to come to fruition | fruit, nut, plant which is bearing fruit | fruity, nutty | - | Refers to the holder/bearer of seeds, which can either be a full plant or the fruit/nut by itself. |
| `ficbupfik` | `ficbup`, `fik` | to grow petals | petal | - | - | |
| `ficbupmain` | `ficbup`, `main` | to bud | bud | budding | - | |
| `buptaut` | `bup`, `taut` | to take root, to anchor with roots | root | rooted | - | Most metaphorical uses just use `taut`, unless they're specifically trying to evoke plant roots. |
| `bubih` | `bup`, `bih` | to grow branches, to grow limbs | branch | branching | - | Almost always part of a plant. |
| `bubihat` | `bubih`, `hat` | to grow twigs, to grow fingers | twig, stick | twiggy | - | |
| `bupas` | `bup`, `has` | to grow tall | trunk, stem | - | - | |
| `bupasat` | `bupas`, `hat` | to grow long | vine | - | - | |
| `bupdup` | `bup`, `dup` | to grow armor, to have bark, to have thick skin | bark | - | - | |
| `bupcap` | `bup`, `cap` | to grow brambles | brambles | - | - | |
| `ficbupcap` | `ficbup`, `cap` | to grow thorns | thorn | thorny | - | |
| `hasbup` | `has`, `bup` | - | stick | - | - | Has the connotation of reaching outward via growth. Vague about what part is grown/stretched. Compare with `bubihat`. |
| `favuf` | `faf`, `vuf` | - | soil, dirt, earth | soiled, dirty, earthy | - | |
| `favufsuat` | `favuf`, `suat` | - | sand, silt, fine gravel | sandy | - | |
| `fafat` | `faf`, `hat` | - | mote | - | - | |
| `fafatsuat` | `fafat`, `suat` | - | dust | dusty | - | |
| `favuftum` | `favuf`, `tum` | - | clay | - | - | |
| `favufmum` | `favuf`, `mum` | - | mud | muddy | - | |
| `papsoun` | `pap`, `soun` | to love another as you love yourself | identical twin, clone | - | - | |
| `papsaum` | `pap`, `saum` | to love as a brother, to love as a sister, to love as a parent, to love as a child | parent, child, sibling, brother, sister, mother, father, kid, nuclear family member | - | - | |
| `papsuk` | `pap`, `suk` | to love as family | grandparent, grandchild, grandkid, half-sibling, niece, nephew, nibling, uncle, aunt | - | - | |
| `papsat` | `pap`, `sat` | to love as a cousin | cousin | - | - | |
| `papsuat` | `pap`, `suat` | to love as family | family, clan | clanish | - | |
| `pabih` | `pap`, `bih` | to love as a brother, to love as a sister, to love as a sibling | sibling, brother, sister | brotherly, sisterly, fraternal, sororal | - | Used metaphorically more often than `papsaum`. |
| `papdup` | `pap`, `dup` | to love as a parent | parent, guardian | parental | - | Also applies to step-parents, foster parents, et cetera. |
| `papmain` | `pap`, `main` | to care for a child, to love a child | child, kid | childish | - | The verb form also applies to teacher/student relationships and even peer relations between kids. Does *not* (usually) apply to grown people who are descended or were raised by someone. More affectionate than `mainup`. |
| `mainup` | `main`, `nup` | to be childish, to be innocent, to play, to be young in nature | child, kid, boy, girl, baby, toddler | childish | childishly | Generic way to refer to a young person. Doesn't have as much loving connotation as `papmain`. |
| `kimnaun` | `kim`, `naun` | to play with, to explore | toy, game, adventure, make-believe, play | playful | playfully | |
| `bikmum` | `bik`, `mum` | to eat seafood | seafood, fish, shellfish | - | - | Technically also includes freshwater fare and seaweed. |
| `bikbup` | `bik`, `bup` | to eat produce | produce, vegetable, fruit | - | - | |

TODO:
adultery/infidelity/cheating/secret romance -> love-new-veiled (papmaincin)
infatuation -> love-new (papmain)
sex (organic binary division) -> life-two (mukik)
male -> life-two-generous (mukikpif)
female -> life-two-origin (mukikfun)
man -> nupmukikpif or nupiki
woman -> nupmukikfun or nupikfu
menarche -> person-life-two-origin-new (nupmukikfumain)
outside -> place-free
now -> local-time
to forget (or to lose track of) -> generous-veiled
trick -> receiver-veiled
school (event) -> time-mind-you
school (place) -> place-mind-you
school (building) -> built-mind-you
market -> place-traded
prediction market -> place-traded-fated
farm/field -> place-edible
pasture -> place-edible-beast
countryside -> place-edible-place
hut -> built-shrink
wing -> branch-sky
work -> active-maker
pull -> push-local
fall -> sky-opposite
dark -> glow-opposite
silence -> sonic-opposite
decay -> life-opposite
drink -> edible-water (note: most of the time "edible" can be used for liquids)
strength -> fire-life
weakness -> cold-life
mathematics -> known-measured
category (math) -> plural-link
Category Theory -> ninaisipazi
pebble -> block-shrink
frame -> shape-base
spark -> fire-shrink (or perhaps shrink-fire depending on nuance)
hill -> place-bent
knot -> link-stretch
ray -> stretch-new
wave (of water) -> water-bent
tide -> water-bent-fill
echo -> sonic-block
whisper -> sonic-small
village -> place-built
city -> place-built-fill
neighbor (vague) -> person-place
forest (place) -> place-plant-fill
jungle -> place-plant-life
park -> place-plant-boon
hunt -> wanted-beast
fence -> block-base
wall -> base-block
fruit/nut/egg -> edible-new
lid/cover -> plain-guard
basket -> hold-plant
floor -> plain-base
roommate -> person-built
guest -> person-built-oddity
name -> sign-person
bed -> base-fluff
run -> traveler-traveler
vegetable -> edible-plant
preference -> boon-measured
meat -> edible-beast
is smaller than -> past-shrink
is larger than -> future-shrink
clothing -> useful-guard
armor -> useful-guard-block
shield -> guard-useful
must -> free-opposite
investigator/detective -> person-paps-listen
  

for (const [wrd,row] of compoundMeanings["Word"]) { coreWords[baseLetters(wrd)] = coreWordEntry(wrd, row); }
  

Resources

Papsa was developed by Max Harms, who also blogs about Utopia at utopiandreams.substack.com. To suggest improvements to the language or have your own Papsa resource linked here, contact Max by any of the methods listed on his personal website. You can also submit pull requests on GitHub.

Everything on this website, including the font for rendering Papsa text, is released into the public domain and is free for anyone to use.